McCune-Albright Syndrome
What is McCune-Albright syndrome?
McCune-Albright syndrome is a disease that affects the bones, skin, and endocrine (hormone) system. It results from a change (or mutation) in a gene that occurs by chance in the womb. Because it occurs by chance, it is not inherited and passed down from one generation to the next.
What are the symptoms of McCune-Albright syndrome?
People with McCune-Albright syndrome may have symptoms related to bones, the endocrine system, or skin. The symptoms can range from mild to severe.
Bone symptoms
Those with McCune-Albright syndrome often have polyostotic fibrous dysplasia (pronounced pa-lee-oh-STOT-ik FIE-bruss diss-PLAY-jsha), which occurs when normal bone is replaced by softer, fibrous tissue. When this happens in weight-bearing bones, such as the leg bones, it can cause limping, deformity, and fractures.
People with McCune-Albright syndrome often have this dysplasia condition in the bones of the skull and upper jaw, so these bones grow unevenly. There is no known hormonal or medical treatment for controlling this aspect of disease, although surgery can help correct some fractures and deformities.
Endocrine system symptoms
Precocious, or very early, puberty – Girls with McCune-Albright syndrome begin to show signs of puberty much younger than normal. Menstrual bleeding before two years of age is the first symptom of McCune-Albright syndrome for most female patients. Boys with the condition may show signs of puberty early, but these signs are less common than in girls.
Thyroid function – The thyroid is a small gland in the neck that affects the metabolism. About half of patients with McCune-Albright syndrome have problems with their thyroid glands, such as enlargement or masses (called nodules or cysts). Drug therapy can sometimes improve thyroid function.
Growth hormone – Some patients have too much pituitary growth hormone, which causes coarse facial features, larger hands and feet, and arthritis. Treatments include surgery and medication.
Cushing’s syndrome – This is a rare problem for McCune-Albright syndrome patients. Symptoms include obesity of the face and body, weight gain, skin fragility, and stopping growth in childhood. Cushing’s syndrome is treated by removing the affected glands or with medicine.
Skin symptoms
McCune-Albright syndrome can cause patches of increased or darker skin coloring. These areas are called café-au-lait spots because, in children with light complexions, these spots are the color of coffee with milk. In darker skinned children, the spots might be hard to see.
Most children have these spots from birth and the spots rarely grow. There are usually not any medical problems caused by these skin changes.
What are the treatments for McCune-Albright syndrome?
There is no cure for McCune-Albright syndrome. Drug treatments may help reduce or alleviate some of the symptoms, and surgery can help repair some of the bone problems.
Friday, February 29, 2008
Lactose Intolerance
Lactose Intolerance
What is lactose intolerance?
People with lactose intolerance have trouble digesting lactose, the natural sugar found in dairy foods. This is because their bodies do not have enough of the enzyme lactase.
Lactose intolerance is not common in young children because most people are born with enough lactase. However, in some people, the amount of lactase in their body drops over their lifetime.
This is especially common in non-Caucasians and other populations that don't traditionally include dairy products in their diets.
What are the symptoms of lactose intolerance?
Symptoms of lactose intolerance can include:
abdominal pain
diarrhea
flatulence
bloating
Symptoms can be mild or severe, usually depending on how much lactose a person has eaten or drank, and how much lactase is in their body. -->
Can people with lactose intolerance still have dairy products?
Most people with lactose intolerance do not require a completely lactose-free diet.
Studies show that there are some things people with lactose intolerance can do to have fewer symptoms of lactose intolerance:
Drink low-fat or fat-free milk in servings of 1 cup or less.
Drink low-fat or fat-free milk with other food, such as with breakfast cereal, instead of by itself.
Eat dairy products other than milk, such as low-fat or fat-free hard cheeses or cottage cheese, or low-fat or fat-free ice cream or yogurt. These foods contain a lower amount of lactose per serving compared with milk and may cause fewer symptoms.
Choose lactose-free milk and milk products, which have the same amount of calcium as regular milk.
Use over-the-counter pills or drops that contain lactase, which can eliminate symptoms altogether
What is lactose intolerance?
People with lactose intolerance have trouble digesting lactose, the natural sugar found in dairy foods. This is because their bodies do not have enough of the enzyme lactase.
Lactose intolerance is not common in young children because most people are born with enough lactase. However, in some people, the amount of lactase in their body drops over their lifetime.
This is especially common in non-Caucasians and other populations that don't traditionally include dairy products in their diets.
What are the symptoms of lactose intolerance?
Symptoms of lactose intolerance can include:
abdominal pain
diarrhea
flatulence
bloating
Symptoms can be mild or severe, usually depending on how much lactose a person has eaten or drank, and how much lactase is in their body. -->
Can people with lactose intolerance still have dairy products?
Most people with lactose intolerance do not require a completely lactose-free diet.
Studies show that there are some things people with lactose intolerance can do to have fewer symptoms of lactose intolerance:
Drink low-fat or fat-free milk in servings of 1 cup or less.
Drink low-fat or fat-free milk with other food, such as with breakfast cereal, instead of by itself.
Eat dairy products other than milk, such as low-fat or fat-free hard cheeses or cottage cheese, or low-fat or fat-free ice cream or yogurt. These foods contain a lower amount of lactose per serving compared with milk and may cause fewer symptoms.
Choose lactose-free milk and milk products, which have the same amount of calcium as regular milk.
Use over-the-counter pills or drops that contain lactase, which can eliminate symptoms altogether
Learning Disabilities
Learning Disabilities
What are learning disabilities?
Learning disabilities are caused by a difference in brain structure that is present at birth and is often hereditary. They affect the way the brain processes information. This processing is the main function involved in learning.
Learning disabilities can impact how someone learns to read, write, hear, speak, and calculate. There are many kinds of learning disabilities and they can affect people differently.
Learning disabilities do not reflect IQ (intelligence quotient) or how smart a person is. Instead, a person with a learning disability has trouble performing specific types of skills or completing a task.
Learning disabilities are not the same as mental or physical disabilities, such as mental retardation, deafness, or blindness. But, learning disabilities may occur together with mental or physical disabilities.
Children with learning disabilities cannot be identified on the basis of acuity (such as vision or hearing) or other physical signs, nor can they be diagnosed solely based on neurological findings. Learning disabilities are widely regarded as variations on normal development and are only considered disabilities when they interfere significantly with school performance and adaptive functions.
What are the signs and symptoms of learning disabilities?
A delay in achieving certain developmental milestones, when most other aspects of development are normal, could be a sign of a learning disability. Such delays may include problems with language, motor delays, or problems with socialization.
If you think your child may have a learning disability, talk to your child’s health care provider or educator to discuss options for evaluation and treatment. These professionals can screen for potential difficulties, but it is essential that someone specializing in the diagnosis of learning disabilities do a full evaluation to confirm the presence of a learning disability.
What are some types of learning disabilities?
The term "learning disabilities" includes a variety of disorders that affect the ability to learn. Some examples include (but are not limited to):
Reading Disability is a reading and language-based learning disability, also commonly called dyslexia. For most children with learning disabilities receiving special education services, the primary area of difficulty is reading. People with reading disabilities often have problems recognizing words that they already know. They may also be poor spellers and may have problems with decoding skills. Other symptoms may include trouble with handwriting and problems understanding what they read. About 15 percent to 20 percent of people in the United States have a language-based disability, and of those, most have dyslexia.
Dyscalculia (dis-kal-kyoo-lee-uh) is a learning disability related to math. Those with dyscalculia may have difficulty understanding math concepts and solving even simple math problems.
Dysgraphia (dis-graf-ee-uh) is a learning disability related to handwriting. People with this condition may have problems forming letters as they write or may have trouble writing within a defined space.
Information-processing disorders are learning disorders related to a person’s ability to use the information that they take in through their senses – seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching. These problems are not related to an inability to see or hear. Instead, the conditions affect the way the brain recognizes, responds to, retrieves, and stores sensory information.
Language-related learning disabilities are problems that interfere with age-appropriate communication, including speaking, listening, reading, spelling, and writing.
What is the treatment for learning disabilities?
While there is no direct cure for a learning disability, early screening and intervention from specialists can often provide great benefits. Early intervention can prevent learning difficulties, thus reducing the number of children requiring special education services.
Under the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, legislators made significant changes in how people with learning disabilities could be identified as eligible for special education services. This reauthorization allows for the optional use of the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach to determine whether a child has a specific learning disability and may receive special education services. There is evidence that the IQ-discrepancy model normally used is ineffective in identifying all students with learning disabilities; therefore many schools are implementing an RTI approach.
RTI is a tiered approach to educational intervention; the most common is a 3-tier model. The first tier provides high quality reading instruction to all students, with careful progress monitoring by teachers in the classrooms. Tier 2 is the same high quality instruction but with increased intensity for those not progressing well enough. If students do not progress with this more intensive instruction, they are identified for Tier 3, which is targeted special education intervention. Tier 3 students would have full evaluations and the establishment of an Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Most children with learning disabilities are eligible for special assistance at school. An IEP should be developed for students who need special education and related services. An IEP includes specific academic, communication, motor, learning, functional, and socialization goals for a child based on his or her educational needs.
What are learning disabilities?
Learning disabilities are caused by a difference in brain structure that is present at birth and is often hereditary. They affect the way the brain processes information. This processing is the main function involved in learning.
Learning disabilities can impact how someone learns to read, write, hear, speak, and calculate. There are many kinds of learning disabilities and they can affect people differently.
Learning disabilities do not reflect IQ (intelligence quotient) or how smart a person is. Instead, a person with a learning disability has trouble performing specific types of skills or completing a task.
Learning disabilities are not the same as mental or physical disabilities, such as mental retardation, deafness, or blindness. But, learning disabilities may occur together with mental or physical disabilities.
Children with learning disabilities cannot be identified on the basis of acuity (such as vision or hearing) or other physical signs, nor can they be diagnosed solely based on neurological findings. Learning disabilities are widely regarded as variations on normal development and are only considered disabilities when they interfere significantly with school performance and adaptive functions.
What are the signs and symptoms of learning disabilities?
A delay in achieving certain developmental milestones, when most other aspects of development are normal, could be a sign of a learning disability. Such delays may include problems with language, motor delays, or problems with socialization.
If you think your child may have a learning disability, talk to your child’s health care provider or educator to discuss options for evaluation and treatment. These professionals can screen for potential difficulties, but it is essential that someone specializing in the diagnosis of learning disabilities do a full evaluation to confirm the presence of a learning disability.
What are some types of learning disabilities?
The term "learning disabilities" includes a variety of disorders that affect the ability to learn. Some examples include (but are not limited to):
Reading Disability is a reading and language-based learning disability, also commonly called dyslexia. For most children with learning disabilities receiving special education services, the primary area of difficulty is reading. People with reading disabilities often have problems recognizing words that they already know. They may also be poor spellers and may have problems with decoding skills. Other symptoms may include trouble with handwriting and problems understanding what they read. About 15 percent to 20 percent of people in the United States have a language-based disability, and of those, most have dyslexia.
Dyscalculia (dis-kal-kyoo-lee-uh) is a learning disability related to math. Those with dyscalculia may have difficulty understanding math concepts and solving even simple math problems.
Dysgraphia (dis-graf-ee-uh) is a learning disability related to handwriting. People with this condition may have problems forming letters as they write or may have trouble writing within a defined space.
Information-processing disorders are learning disorders related to a person’s ability to use the information that they take in through their senses – seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching. These problems are not related to an inability to see or hear. Instead, the conditions affect the way the brain recognizes, responds to, retrieves, and stores sensory information.
Language-related learning disabilities are problems that interfere with age-appropriate communication, including speaking, listening, reading, spelling, and writing.
What is the treatment for learning disabilities?
While there is no direct cure for a learning disability, early screening and intervention from specialists can often provide great benefits. Early intervention can prevent learning difficulties, thus reducing the number of children requiring special education services.
Under the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, legislators made significant changes in how people with learning disabilities could be identified as eligible for special education services. This reauthorization allows for the optional use of the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach to determine whether a child has a specific learning disability and may receive special education services. There is evidence that the IQ-discrepancy model normally used is ineffective in identifying all students with learning disabilities; therefore many schools are implementing an RTI approach.
RTI is a tiered approach to educational intervention; the most common is a 3-tier model. The first tier provides high quality reading instruction to all students, with careful progress monitoring by teachers in the classrooms. Tier 2 is the same high quality instruction but with increased intensity for those not progressing well enough. If students do not progress with this more intensive instruction, they are identified for Tier 3, which is targeted special education intervention. Tier 3 students would have full evaluations and the establishment of an Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Most children with learning disabilities are eligible for special assistance at school. An IEP should be developed for students who need special education and related services. An IEP includes specific academic, communication, motor, learning, functional, and socialization goals for a child based on his or her educational needs.
Learning Disorders
Learning Disorders
What are learning disabilities?
Learning disabilities are caused by a difference in brain structure that is present at birth and is often hereditary. They affect the way the brain processes information. This processing is the main function involved in learning.
Learning disabilities can impact how someone learns to read, write, hear, speak, and calculate. There are many kinds of learning disabilities and they can affect people differently.
Learning disabilities do not reflect IQ (intelligence quotient) or how smart a person is. Instead, a person with a learning disability has trouble performing specific types of skills or completing a task.
Learning disabilities are not the same as mental or physical disabilities, such as mental retardation, deafness, or blindness. But, learning disabilities may occur together with mental or physical disabilities.
Children with learning disabilities cannot be identified on the basis of acuity (such as vision or hearing) or other physical signs, nor can they be diagnosed solely based on neurological findings. Learning disabilities are widely regarded as variations on normal development and are only considered disabilities when they interfere significantly with school performance and adaptive functions.
What are the signs and symptoms of learning disabilities?
A delay in achieving certain developmental milestones, when most other aspects of development are normal, could be a sign of a learning disability. Such delays may include problems with language, motor delays, or problems with socialization.
If you think your child may have a learning disability, talk to your child’s health care provider or educator to discuss options for evaluation and treatment. These professionals can screen for potential difficulties, but it is essential that someone specializing in the diagnosis of learning disabilities do a full evaluation to confirm the presence of a learning disability.
What are some types of learning disabilities?
The term "learning disabilities" includes a variety of disorders that affect the ability to learn. Some examples include (but are not limited to):
Reading Disability is a reading and language-based learning disability, also commonly called dyslexia. For most children with learning disabilities receiving special education services, the primary area of difficulty is reading. People with reading disabilities often have problems recognizing words that they already know. They may also be poor spellers and may have problems with decoding skills. Other symptoms may include trouble with handwriting and problems understanding what they read. About 15 percent to 20 percent of people in the United States have a language-based disability, and of those, most have dyslexia.
Dyscalculia (dis-kal-kyoo-lee-uh) is a learning disability related to math. Those with dyscalculia may have difficulty understanding math concepts and solving even simple math problems.
Dysgraphia (dis-graf-ee-uh) is a learning disability related to handwriting. People with this condition may have problems forming letters as they write or may have trouble writing within a defined space.
Information-processing disorders are learning disorders related to a person’s ability to use the information that they take in through their senses – seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching. These problems are not related to an inability to see or hear. Instead, the conditions affect the way the brain recognizes, responds to, retrieves, and stores sensory information.
Language-related learning disabilities are problems that interfere with age-appropriate communication, including speaking, listening, reading, spelling, and writing.
What is the treatment for learning disabilities?
While there is no direct cure for a learning disability, early screening and intervention from specialists can often provide great benefits. Early intervention can prevent learning difficulties, thus reducing the number of children requiring special education services.
Under the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, legislators made significant changes in how people with learning disabilities could be identified as eligible for special education services. This reauthorization allows for the optional use of the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach to determine whether a child has a specific learning disability and may receive special education services. There is evidence that the IQ-discrepancy model normally used is ineffective in identifying all students with learning disabilities; therefore many schools are implementing an RTI approach.
RTI is a tiered approach to educational intervention; the most common is a 3-tier model. The first tier provides high quality reading instruction to all students, with careful progress monitoring by teachers in the classrooms. Tier 2 is the same high quality instruction but with increased intensity for those not progressing well enough. If students do not progress with this more intensive instruction, they are identified for Tier 3, which is targeted special education intervention. Tier 3 students would have full evaluations and the establishment of an Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Most children with learning disabilities are eligible for special assistance at school. An IEP should be developed for students who need special education and related services. An IEP includes specific academic, communication, motor, learning, functional, and socialization goals for a child based on his or her educational needs.
What are learning disabilities?
Learning disabilities are caused by a difference in brain structure that is present at birth and is often hereditary. They affect the way the brain processes information. This processing is the main function involved in learning.
Learning disabilities can impact how someone learns to read, write, hear, speak, and calculate. There are many kinds of learning disabilities and they can affect people differently.
Learning disabilities do not reflect IQ (intelligence quotient) or how smart a person is. Instead, a person with a learning disability has trouble performing specific types of skills or completing a task.
Learning disabilities are not the same as mental or physical disabilities, such as mental retardation, deafness, or blindness. But, learning disabilities may occur together with mental or physical disabilities.
Children with learning disabilities cannot be identified on the basis of acuity (such as vision or hearing) or other physical signs, nor can they be diagnosed solely based on neurological findings. Learning disabilities are widely regarded as variations on normal development and are only considered disabilities when they interfere significantly with school performance and adaptive functions.
What are the signs and symptoms of learning disabilities?
A delay in achieving certain developmental milestones, when most other aspects of development are normal, could be a sign of a learning disability. Such delays may include problems with language, motor delays, or problems with socialization.
If you think your child may have a learning disability, talk to your child’s health care provider or educator to discuss options for evaluation and treatment. These professionals can screen for potential difficulties, but it is essential that someone specializing in the diagnosis of learning disabilities do a full evaluation to confirm the presence of a learning disability.
What are some types of learning disabilities?
The term "learning disabilities" includes a variety of disorders that affect the ability to learn. Some examples include (but are not limited to):
Reading Disability is a reading and language-based learning disability, also commonly called dyslexia. For most children with learning disabilities receiving special education services, the primary area of difficulty is reading. People with reading disabilities often have problems recognizing words that they already know. They may also be poor spellers and may have problems with decoding skills. Other symptoms may include trouble with handwriting and problems understanding what they read. About 15 percent to 20 percent of people in the United States have a language-based disability, and of those, most have dyslexia.
Dyscalculia (dis-kal-kyoo-lee-uh) is a learning disability related to math. Those with dyscalculia may have difficulty understanding math concepts and solving even simple math problems.
Dysgraphia (dis-graf-ee-uh) is a learning disability related to handwriting. People with this condition may have problems forming letters as they write or may have trouble writing within a defined space.
Information-processing disorders are learning disorders related to a person’s ability to use the information that they take in through their senses – seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching. These problems are not related to an inability to see or hear. Instead, the conditions affect the way the brain recognizes, responds to, retrieves, and stores sensory information.
Language-related learning disabilities are problems that interfere with age-appropriate communication, including speaking, listening, reading, spelling, and writing.
What is the treatment for learning disabilities?
While there is no direct cure for a learning disability, early screening and intervention from specialists can often provide great benefits. Early intervention can prevent learning difficulties, thus reducing the number of children requiring special education services.
Under the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, legislators made significant changes in how people with learning disabilities could be identified as eligible for special education services. This reauthorization allows for the optional use of the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach to determine whether a child has a specific learning disability and may receive special education services. There is evidence that the IQ-discrepancy model normally used is ineffective in identifying all students with learning disabilities; therefore many schools are implementing an RTI approach.
RTI is a tiered approach to educational intervention; the most common is a 3-tier model. The first tier provides high quality reading instruction to all students, with careful progress monitoring by teachers in the classrooms. Tier 2 is the same high quality instruction but with increased intensity for those not progressing well enough. If students do not progress with this more intensive instruction, they are identified for Tier 3, which is targeted special education intervention. Tier 3 students would have full evaluations and the establishment of an Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Most children with learning disabilities are eligible for special assistance at school. An IEP should be developed for students who need special education and related services. An IEP includes specific academic, communication, motor, learning, functional, and socialization goals for a child based on his or her educational needs.
Klinefelter Syndrome
Klinefelter Syndrome
What is Klinefelter syndrome?
Klinefelter syndrome, also known as the XXY condition, is a term used to describe males who have an extra X chromosome in most of their cells. Instead of having the usual XY chromosome pattern that most males have, these men have an XXY pattern.
Klinefelter syndrome is named after Dr. Henry Klinefelter, who first described a group of symptoms found in some men with the extra X chromosome. Even though all men with Klinefelter syndrome have the extra X chromosome, not every XXY male has all of those symptoms.
Because not every male with an XXY pattern has all the symptoms of Klinefelter syndrome, it is common to use the term XXY male to describe these men, or XXY condition to describe the symptoms.
Scientists believe the XXY condition is one of the most common chromosome abnormalities in humans. About one of every 500 males has an extra X chromosome, but many don’t have any symptoms.
For more information on genes and chromosomes,
What are the symptoms of the XXY condition?
Not all males with the condition have the same symptoms or to the same degree. Symptoms depend on how many XXY cells a man has, how much testosterone is in his body, and his age when the condition is diagnosed.
The XXY condition can affect three main areas of development:
Physical development: As babies, many XXY males have weak muscles and reduced strength. They may sit up, crawl, and walk later than other infants. After about age four, XXY males tend to be taller and may have less muscle control and coordination than other boys their age.As XXY males enter puberty, they often don’t make as much testosterone as other boys. This can lead to a taller, less muscular body, less facial and body hair, and broader hips than other boys. As teens, XXY males may have larger breasts, weaker bones, and a lower energy level than other boys. By adulthood, XXY males look similar to males without the condition, although they are often taller. They are also more likely than other men to have certain health problems, such as autoimmune disorders, breast cancer, vein diseases, osteoporosis, and tooth decay.XXY males can have normal sex lives, but they usually make little or no sperm. Between 95 percent and 99 percent of XXY males are infertile because their bodies don’t make a lot of sperm.
Language development: As boys, between 25 percent and 85 percent of XXY males have some kind of language problem, such as learning to talk late, trouble using language to express thoughts and needs, problems reading, and trouble processing what they hear.As adults, XXY males may have a harder time doing work that involves reading and writing, but most hold jobs and have successful careers.
Social development: As babies, XXY males tend to be quiet and undemanding. As they get older, they are usually quieter, less self-confident, less active, and more helpful and obedient than other boys.As teens, XXY males tend to be quiet and shy. They may struggle in school and sports, meaning they may have more trouble “fitting in” with other kids. However, as adults, XXY males live lives similar to men without the condition; they have friends, families, and normal social relationships.
What are the treatments for the XXY condition?
The XXY chromosome pattern can not be changed. But, there are a variety of ways to treat the symptoms of the XXY condition.
Educational treatments – As children, many XXY males qualify for special services to help them in school. Teachers can also help by using certain methods in the classroom, such as breaking bigger tasks into small steps.
Therapeutic options – A variety of therapists, such as physical, speech, occupational, behavioral, mental health, and family therapists, can often help reduce or eliminate some of the symptoms of the XXY condition, such as poor muscle tone, speech or language problems, or low self-confidence.
Medical treatments – Testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) can greatly help XXY males get their testosterone levels into normal range. Having a more normal testosterone level can help develop bigger muscles, deepen the voice, and grow facial and body hair. TRT often starts when a boy reaches puberty. Some XXY males can also benefit from fertility treatment to help them father children.
What is Klinefelter syndrome?
Klinefelter syndrome, also known as the XXY condition, is a term used to describe males who have an extra X chromosome in most of their cells. Instead of having the usual XY chromosome pattern that most males have, these men have an XXY pattern.
Klinefelter syndrome is named after Dr. Henry Klinefelter, who first described a group of symptoms found in some men with the extra X chromosome. Even though all men with Klinefelter syndrome have the extra X chromosome, not every XXY male has all of those symptoms.
Because not every male with an XXY pattern has all the symptoms of Klinefelter syndrome, it is common to use the term XXY male to describe these men, or XXY condition to describe the symptoms.
Scientists believe the XXY condition is one of the most common chromosome abnormalities in humans. About one of every 500 males has an extra X chromosome, but many don’t have any symptoms.
For more information on genes and chromosomes,
What are the symptoms of the XXY condition?
Not all males with the condition have the same symptoms or to the same degree. Symptoms depend on how many XXY cells a man has, how much testosterone is in his body, and his age when the condition is diagnosed.
The XXY condition can affect three main areas of development:
Physical development: As babies, many XXY males have weak muscles and reduced strength. They may sit up, crawl, and walk later than other infants. After about age four, XXY males tend to be taller and may have less muscle control and coordination than other boys their age.As XXY males enter puberty, they often don’t make as much testosterone as other boys. This can lead to a taller, less muscular body, less facial and body hair, and broader hips than other boys. As teens, XXY males may have larger breasts, weaker bones, and a lower energy level than other boys. By adulthood, XXY males look similar to males without the condition, although they are often taller. They are also more likely than other men to have certain health problems, such as autoimmune disorders, breast cancer, vein diseases, osteoporosis, and tooth decay.XXY males can have normal sex lives, but they usually make little or no sperm. Between 95 percent and 99 percent of XXY males are infertile because their bodies don’t make a lot of sperm.
Language development: As boys, between 25 percent and 85 percent of XXY males have some kind of language problem, such as learning to talk late, trouble using language to express thoughts and needs, problems reading, and trouble processing what they hear.As adults, XXY males may have a harder time doing work that involves reading and writing, but most hold jobs and have successful careers.
Social development: As babies, XXY males tend to be quiet and undemanding. As they get older, they are usually quieter, less self-confident, less active, and more helpful and obedient than other boys.As teens, XXY males tend to be quiet and shy. They may struggle in school and sports, meaning they may have more trouble “fitting in” with other kids. However, as adults, XXY males live lives similar to men without the condition; they have friends, families, and normal social relationships.
What are the treatments for the XXY condition?
The XXY chromosome pattern can not be changed. But, there are a variety of ways to treat the symptoms of the XXY condition.
Educational treatments – As children, many XXY males qualify for special services to help them in school. Teachers can also help by using certain methods in the classroom, such as breaking bigger tasks into small steps.
Therapeutic options – A variety of therapists, such as physical, speech, occupational, behavioral, mental health, and family therapists, can often help reduce or eliminate some of the symptoms of the XXY condition, such as poor muscle tone, speech or language problems, or low self-confidence.
Medical treatments – Testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) can greatly help XXY males get their testosterone levels into normal range. Having a more normal testosterone level can help develop bigger muscles, deepen the voice, and grow facial and body hair. TRT often starts when a boy reaches puberty. Some XXY males can also benefit from fertility treatment to help them father children.
Hypoparathyroidism
Hypoparathyroidism
What is hypoparathyroidism?
Hypoparathyroidism is a condition in which the body doesn’t make enough parathyroid hormone (PTH).
This hormone regulates the amount of calcium and phosphorus in your body’s bones and blood. Decreased levels of PTH lead to low levels of calcium and high levels of phosphorus in the blood. This imbalance can lead to problems with bones, muscles, skin, and nerve endings.
What causes hypoparathyroidism?
The most common cause of hypoparathyroidism is injury to the parathyroid glands, such as during head and neck surgery. Parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands that are located in the neck behind the thyroid gland.
It other cases, hypoparathyroidism is present at birth or may be associated with an autoimmune disease that affects the parathyroids along with other glands in the body, such as the thyroid, ovaries, or adrenal glands.
Hypoparathyroidism is very rare. It is different from hyperparathyroidism, a much more common condition in which the body makes too much PTH.
What are the symptoms of hypoparathyroidism?
Symptoms of hypoparathyroidism may include:
Tingling in the lips, fingers, and toes
Dry hair, brittle nails, and dry, coarse skin
Muscle cramps and pain in the face, hands, legs, and feet
Cataracts on the eyes
Malformations of the teeth, including weakened tooth enamel and misshapen roots of the teeth
Loss of memory
Headaches
Severe muscle spasms (also called tetany) and convulsions
How is hypoparathyroidism treated?
The goal of treatment for hypoparathyroidism is to restore the body’s calcium and phosphorus to normal levels. Calcium carbonate and vitamin D supplements are the only currently approved treatment. However, NIH studies have shown the investigational drug PTH to work well as an alternative therapy.
If hypoparathyroidism is diagnosed and treated early, outcomes are usual good and the body grows normally.
If hypoparathyroidism is left untreated, complications can include a blocked airway due to severe muscle spasms, stunted growth, malformed teeth, development of cataracts, and calcium deposits in the brain.
What is hypoparathyroidism?
Hypoparathyroidism is a condition in which the body doesn’t make enough parathyroid hormone (PTH).
This hormone regulates the amount of calcium and phosphorus in your body’s bones and blood. Decreased levels of PTH lead to low levels of calcium and high levels of phosphorus in the blood. This imbalance can lead to problems with bones, muscles, skin, and nerve endings.
What causes hypoparathyroidism?
The most common cause of hypoparathyroidism is injury to the parathyroid glands, such as during head and neck surgery. Parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands that are located in the neck behind the thyroid gland.
It other cases, hypoparathyroidism is present at birth or may be associated with an autoimmune disease that affects the parathyroids along with other glands in the body, such as the thyroid, ovaries, or adrenal glands.
Hypoparathyroidism is very rare. It is different from hyperparathyroidism, a much more common condition in which the body makes too much PTH.
What are the symptoms of hypoparathyroidism?
Symptoms of hypoparathyroidism may include:
Tingling in the lips, fingers, and toes
Dry hair, brittle nails, and dry, coarse skin
Muscle cramps and pain in the face, hands, legs, and feet
Cataracts on the eyes
Malformations of the teeth, including weakened tooth enamel and misshapen roots of the teeth
Loss of memory
Headaches
Severe muscle spasms (also called tetany) and convulsions
How is hypoparathyroidism treated?
The goal of treatment for hypoparathyroidism is to restore the body’s calcium and phosphorus to normal levels. Calcium carbonate and vitamin D supplements are the only currently approved treatment. However, NIH studies have shown the investigational drug PTH to work well as an alternative therapy.
If hypoparathyroidism is diagnosed and treated early, outcomes are usual good and the body grows normally.
If hypoparathyroidism is left untreated, complications can include a blocked airway due to severe muscle spasms, stunted growth, malformed teeth, development of cataracts, and calcium deposits in the brain.
Diet and Nutrition
Diet and Nutrition
What are diet and nutrition?
A person’s diet is made up of the food they eat. Nutrition is the way that the food people eat nourishes their bodies.
Good nutrition means your body is getting all the nutrients, vitamins, and minerals it needs to work at its best level. Eating a healthy diet is your main way to get good nutrition.
Most people know that a balance of good nutrition and physical activity can help them reach and maintain a healthy weight. But the benefits of good nutrition go beyond weight. Good nutrition can also:
Improve cardiovascular and other body system functions, mental well-being, school/cognitive performance, and wound healing or recovery from illness or injury
Reduce the risk for diseases, including heart disease, diabetes, stroke, some cancers, and osteoporosis
Increase energy and the body’s ability to fight off illness
Does everyone need the same things for good nutrition or a healthy diet?
No—A number of factors impact a person’s nutritional and dietary needs.
Different age groups have different nutritional needs, and people’s diets should meet those specific needs. For example, an infant needs a different diet and nutrition than a teenager. Likewise, the nutritional needs and diet of a pregnant woman are different than those of an elderly man.
In addition, factors such as a person’s height and current weight, current health status, and activity level also affect what kinds of nutrients they need and how much they need.
What are some tips for healthy eating?
Some general tips for healthy eating include:
Eat a variety of fruits and vegetables – Eat fruit that is fresh, frozen, canned, or dried rather than fruit juice for most of your fruit choices. Eat dark green vegetables, orange vegetables, and beans and peas.
Get your calcium-rich foods. Get 3 cups of low-fat or fat-free milk, or other dairy products, such as yogurt and cheese. You can also try dark green, leafy vegetables, lactose-free milk products, and calcium-fortified foods and beverages for your calcium needs.
Make half your grains whole. Eat at least 3 ounces of whole-grain cereals, breads, crackers, rice, or pasta every day. Look to see that grains such as wheat, rice, oats, or corn are referred to as "whole" in the list of ingredients.
Go lean with protein. Choose lean meats and poultry. And vary your protein choices with more fish, beans, peas, nuts, and seeds.
Know the limits on fats, salt, and sugars. Read the Nutrition Facts label on foods. Look for foods low in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, salt (sodium), and added sugars. Saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol tend to raise “bad” (LDL) cholesterol levels in the blood, which in turn increases the risk for heart disease.
How do I know if I’m eating a healthy diet?
In general, a healthy diet—one that gives your body balanced nutrition—includes these actions:
Make smart choices from every food group
Find your balance between food and physical activity
Get the most nutrition out of your calories
The Dietary Guidelines for Americans—a report published every five years by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the U.S. Department of Agriculture—explains how you can accomplish these actions. The report recommends a general diet that can help lead to good health and reduce risk for diseases for people two years and older.
There are a number of other resources that you can use to set up a healthy eating plan specific to your needs:
The Make your calories count Web site is an interactive site that explains how to use the information in Nutrition Facts labels on foods to make food choices that provide balanced nutrition.
If you are concerned about your own or your family’s nutritional needs, you can also talk to your health care provider. He or she can make suggestions based on your family history and current health status.
How is physical activity related to diet and nutrition?
Another important part of good nutrition is creating a balance between the food you eat (ENERGY IN) and physical activity (ENERGY OUT).
For ENERGY IN, choose foods and amounts of foods that will help you and your family maintain a healthy weight and provide the nutrients they need while keeping their calories under control.
For ENERGY OUT, get moving! Adults 18 and older need 30 minutes of physical activity on five or more days a week to be healthy; children and teens need 60 minutes of activity a day for their health.
Combine healthy eating with a balance between food and physical activity to improve your overall health.
How is obesity related to nutrition and diet?
Good nutrition requires a balance of food, vitamins, and minerals (from eating a healthy diet) and physical activity. Overweight and obesity can result if things get out of balance—such as eating too much food, not getting enough physical activity, or having too much of one or more nutrients in the diet.
The United States is facing a very serious public health crisis of overweight and obesity. Nearly one-third of all adults are now classified as obese, a figure that has more than doubled over the last 30 years. Children are getting heavier as well. The percentage of children and teens that are overweight has more than doubled in the past 30 years. Today, about 17 percent of American children ages 2 to 19 are overweight.
Health risks associated with being overweight or obese include type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, asthma, and arthritis, among other risks. Good nutrition—including making smart choices from every food group and getting the most nutrition out of your calories—is a critical step in helping control your weight and preventing the health risks that come from being overweight or obese.
For more information, see the obesity health topic.
What are some education programs to help people learn about diet and nutrition?
The NICHD and other federal agencies work to help people improve their health—diet, nutrition, and a healthy lifestyle play important roles. The NICHD is involved in health education programs that can help people learn about diet and nutrition:
Media-Smart Youth: Eat, Think, and Be Active! is an interactive after-school education program for young people ages 11 to 13. It is designed to help teach them about the complex media world around them, and how it can affect their health—especially in the areas of nutrition and physical activity.
Media-Smart Youth is not a weight loss program, but rather is a health promotion program. It helps young people become critical, creative thinkers to help them make smart and positive choices about nutrition and physical activity.
Milk Matters is an information campaign that educates families about the importance of getting enough calcium, especially for tweens and teens ages 11 to 15, a time of critical bone growth. Although the consequences of low calcium consumption may not be visible in childhood, the NICHD recognizes lack of calcium intake as a serious and growing threat to the health of young people later in life.
WE CAN! (Ways to Enhance Children’s Activity and Nutrition) is a national education program to help prevent overweight and obesity among youth ages 8 to 13. WE CAN! offers parents and families tips and fun activities to encourage healthy eating, increase physical activity, and reduce sedentary or screen time. It also offers community groups and health professionals exciting resources to implement programs and fun activities for parents and youth in communities around the country.
What are diet and nutrition?
A person’s diet is made up of the food they eat. Nutrition is the way that the food people eat nourishes their bodies.
Good nutrition means your body is getting all the nutrients, vitamins, and minerals it needs to work at its best level. Eating a healthy diet is your main way to get good nutrition.
Most people know that a balance of good nutrition and physical activity can help them reach and maintain a healthy weight. But the benefits of good nutrition go beyond weight. Good nutrition can also:
Improve cardiovascular and other body system functions, mental well-being, school/cognitive performance, and wound healing or recovery from illness or injury
Reduce the risk for diseases, including heart disease, diabetes, stroke, some cancers, and osteoporosis
Increase energy and the body’s ability to fight off illness
Does everyone need the same things for good nutrition or a healthy diet?
No—A number of factors impact a person’s nutritional and dietary needs.
Different age groups have different nutritional needs, and people’s diets should meet those specific needs. For example, an infant needs a different diet and nutrition than a teenager. Likewise, the nutritional needs and diet of a pregnant woman are different than those of an elderly man.
In addition, factors such as a person’s height and current weight, current health status, and activity level also affect what kinds of nutrients they need and how much they need.
What are some tips for healthy eating?
Some general tips for healthy eating include:
Eat a variety of fruits and vegetables – Eat fruit that is fresh, frozen, canned, or dried rather than fruit juice for most of your fruit choices. Eat dark green vegetables, orange vegetables, and beans and peas.
Get your calcium-rich foods. Get 3 cups of low-fat or fat-free milk, or other dairy products, such as yogurt and cheese. You can also try dark green, leafy vegetables, lactose-free milk products, and calcium-fortified foods and beverages for your calcium needs.
Make half your grains whole. Eat at least 3 ounces of whole-grain cereals, breads, crackers, rice, or pasta every day. Look to see that grains such as wheat, rice, oats, or corn are referred to as "whole" in the list of ingredients.
Go lean with protein. Choose lean meats and poultry. And vary your protein choices with more fish, beans, peas, nuts, and seeds.
Know the limits on fats, salt, and sugars. Read the Nutrition Facts label on foods. Look for foods low in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, salt (sodium), and added sugars. Saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol tend to raise “bad” (LDL) cholesterol levels in the blood, which in turn increases the risk for heart disease.
How do I know if I’m eating a healthy diet?
In general, a healthy diet—one that gives your body balanced nutrition—includes these actions:
Make smart choices from every food group
Find your balance between food and physical activity
Get the most nutrition out of your calories
The Dietary Guidelines for Americans—a report published every five years by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the U.S. Department of Agriculture—explains how you can accomplish these actions. The report recommends a general diet that can help lead to good health and reduce risk for diseases for people two years and older.
There are a number of other resources that you can use to set up a healthy eating plan specific to your needs:
The Make your calories count Web site is an interactive site that explains how to use the information in Nutrition Facts labels on foods to make food choices that provide balanced nutrition.
If you are concerned about your own or your family’s nutritional needs, you can also talk to your health care provider. He or she can make suggestions based on your family history and current health status.
How is physical activity related to diet and nutrition?
Another important part of good nutrition is creating a balance between the food you eat (ENERGY IN) and physical activity (ENERGY OUT).
For ENERGY IN, choose foods and amounts of foods that will help you and your family maintain a healthy weight and provide the nutrients they need while keeping their calories under control.
For ENERGY OUT, get moving! Adults 18 and older need 30 minutes of physical activity on five or more days a week to be healthy; children and teens need 60 minutes of activity a day for their health.
Combine healthy eating with a balance between food and physical activity to improve your overall health.
How is obesity related to nutrition and diet?
Good nutrition requires a balance of food, vitamins, and minerals (from eating a healthy diet) and physical activity. Overweight and obesity can result if things get out of balance—such as eating too much food, not getting enough physical activity, or having too much of one or more nutrients in the diet.
The United States is facing a very serious public health crisis of overweight and obesity. Nearly one-third of all adults are now classified as obese, a figure that has more than doubled over the last 30 years. Children are getting heavier as well. The percentage of children and teens that are overweight has more than doubled in the past 30 years. Today, about 17 percent of American children ages 2 to 19 are overweight.
Health risks associated with being overweight or obese include type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, asthma, and arthritis, among other risks. Good nutrition—including making smart choices from every food group and getting the most nutrition out of your calories—is a critical step in helping control your weight and preventing the health risks that come from being overweight or obese.
For more information, see the obesity health topic.
What are some education programs to help people learn about diet and nutrition?
The NICHD and other federal agencies work to help people improve their health—diet, nutrition, and a healthy lifestyle play important roles. The NICHD is involved in health education programs that can help people learn about diet and nutrition:
Media-Smart Youth: Eat, Think, and Be Active! is an interactive after-school education program for young people ages 11 to 13. It is designed to help teach them about the complex media world around them, and how it can affect their health—especially in the areas of nutrition and physical activity.
Media-Smart Youth is not a weight loss program, but rather is a health promotion program. It helps young people become critical, creative thinkers to help them make smart and positive choices about nutrition and physical activity.
Milk Matters is an information campaign that educates families about the importance of getting enough calcium, especially for tweens and teens ages 11 to 15, a time of critical bone growth. Although the consequences of low calcium consumption may not be visible in childhood, the NICHD recognizes lack of calcium intake as a serious and growing threat to the health of young people later in life.
WE CAN! (Ways to Enhance Children’s Activity and Nutrition) is a national education program to help prevent overweight and obesity among youth ages 8 to 13. WE CAN! offers parents and families tips and fun activities to encourage healthy eating, increase physical activity, and reduce sedentary or screen time. It also offers community groups and health professionals exciting resources to implement programs and fun activities for parents and youth in communities around the country.
Middle Adolescence (15-17 years
Child Development
Child Development
Middle Adolescence (15-17 years old)
Developmental MilestonesMiddle adolescence is a time of physical, mental, cognitive, and sexual changes for your teenager. Most girls will be physically mature by now, and most will have completed puberty. Boys might still be maturing physically during this time. Your teenager might have concerns about her body size, shape, or weight. Eating disorders can also be common, especially among females. During this phase of development, your teenager is developing his unique personality and opinions. Peer relationships are still important, yet your teenager will have other interests as he develops a more clear sense of identity. Middle adolescence is also an important time to prepare for more independence and responsibility; many teenagers start working, and many will be leaving home soon after high school.Other changes you might notice in your teenager include:
Emotional/Social Changes
Increased interest in the opposite sex
Decreased conflict with parents
Increased independence from parents
Deeper capacity for caring and sharing and the development of more intimate relationships
Decreased time spent with parents and more time spent with peers
Mental/Cognitive Changes
More defined work habits
More concern about future educational and vocational plans
Greater ability to sense right and wrong
Sadness or depression, which can lead to poor grades at school, alcohol or drug use, unsafe sex, thoughts of suicide, and other problems (Note: Problems at school, alcohol and drug use, and other disorders can also lead to feelings of sadness or hopelessness.)
(Adapted with permission from Bright Futures: Green M, Palfrey JS, editors. Bright Futures Family Tip Sheets: Early Adolescence. Arlington (VA): National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health, 2001. Other sources: American Academy of Child and Family Psychiatry and the American Academy of Pediatrics)
Positive Parenting Tips for Healthy Child Development
Talk to your teenager about her concerns and pay attention to any changes in her behavior. Ask her if she has had suicidal thoughts, particularly if she seems sad or depressed. Asking about suicidal thoughts will not cause her to have these thoughts, but it will let her know that you care about how she feels. Seek professional help if necessary.
Show interest in your teenager’s school and extracurricular interests and activities and encourage him to become involved in activities such as sports, music, theater, and art.
Compliment your teenager and celebrate her efforts and accomplishments.
Show affection for your teenager. Spend time together doing things you enjoy.
Respect your teenager’s opinion. Listen to him without playing down his concerns.
Encourage your teenager to volunteer and become involved in civic activities in her community.
Encourage your teenager to develop solutions to problems or conflicts. Help your teenager learn to make good decisions. Create opportunities for him to use his own judgment, and be available for advice and support.
If your teenager engages in interactive Internet media such as games, chat rooms, and instant messaging, encourage him to be disciplined and respectful about the amount of time she is involved with it.
If your teenager works, use the opportunity to talk about expectations, responsibility, and other aspects of behaving respectfully in a public setting.
Talk with your teenager and help him plan ahead for difficult or uncomfortable situations. Discuss what he can do if he is in a group and someone is using drugs, under pressure to have sex, or offered a ride from someone who has been drinking.
Respect your teenager’s need for privacy.
Encourage your teenager to get enough sleep and exercise, and to eat healthy, balanced meals.
Encourage your teenager to have meals with the family. Eating together will help your teenager make better choices about the foods she eats, promote healthy weight, and give family members time to talk with each other. In addition, a teenager who eats meals with the family is more likely to have better grades and less likely to smoke, drink, or use drugs. She is also less likely to get into fights, think about suicide, or engage in sexual activity.
Safety First
Motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death from unintentional injury among teenagers, yet few teenagers take measures to reduce their risk of injury. Unintentional injuries resulting from participation in sports and other activities are also common.
Talk with your teenager about the importance of wearing a seatbelt while driving. Insist that she obey speed limits and traffic lights, and strongly advise her not to drink and drive. Set clear rules for when and where she can use the car, and who can ride with her.
Encourage your teenager to wear a helmet when riding a bike, motorcycle, or all-terrain vehicle.
Suicide is the third leading cause of death among youth 15 through 24 years of age. Talk with your teenager about suicide and pay attention to warning signs.
Talk with your teenager about the dangers of drugs, drinking, smoking, and risky sexual activity. Ask him what he knows and thinks about these issues, and share with him your feelings. Listen to what he says and answer his questions honestly and directly.
Discuss with your teenager the importance of choosing friends who do not act in dangerous or unhealthy ways.
Know where your teenager is and whether an adult is present. Make plans with her for when she will call you, where you can find her, and what time you expect her home.
Links For Parents
The American Academy of Pediatrics has brochures, fact sheets, and other information on various health topics for parents with children of all ages.
CDC’s Division of Adolescent and School Health has a Healthy Youth! webpage that addresses six critical types of adolescent health behavior that contribute to the leading causes of death and disability among adults and youth. The website’s A to Z list addresses other issues that affect children and adolescents.
The National Center on Injury Prevention and Control at CDC has a website that contains information like youth violence, suicide, teen drivers, sexual violence, and other injury-related topics.
KidsHealth by the Nemours Foundation has practical information for parents, teens, and kids.
The American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry has fact sheets for parents on various issues related to child and adolescent development.
Talk With Your Kids is a national initiative by Children Now and the Kaiser Family Foundation to encourage parents to talk with their children early and often about tough issues like sex, HIV/AIDS, violence, and alcohol and drug abuse.
The National Institute of Mental Health and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration have information and resources on child and adolescent mental health.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has information on safety recalls, and safety tips for children riding in motor vehicles, walking, biking, playing outside, waiting at school bus stops, and more.
[Return to Top]
Date: October 24, 2007Content source: National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities
Child Development
Middle Adolescence (15-17 years old)
Developmental MilestonesMiddle adolescence is a time of physical, mental, cognitive, and sexual changes for your teenager. Most girls will be physically mature by now, and most will have completed puberty. Boys might still be maturing physically during this time. Your teenager might have concerns about her body size, shape, or weight. Eating disorders can also be common, especially among females. During this phase of development, your teenager is developing his unique personality and opinions. Peer relationships are still important, yet your teenager will have other interests as he develops a more clear sense of identity. Middle adolescence is also an important time to prepare for more independence and responsibility; many teenagers start working, and many will be leaving home soon after high school.Other changes you might notice in your teenager include:
Emotional/Social Changes
Increased interest in the opposite sex
Decreased conflict with parents
Increased independence from parents
Deeper capacity for caring and sharing and the development of more intimate relationships
Decreased time spent with parents and more time spent with peers
Mental/Cognitive Changes
More defined work habits
More concern about future educational and vocational plans
Greater ability to sense right and wrong
Sadness or depression, which can lead to poor grades at school, alcohol or drug use, unsafe sex, thoughts of suicide, and other problems (Note: Problems at school, alcohol and drug use, and other disorders can also lead to feelings of sadness or hopelessness.)
(Adapted with permission from Bright Futures: Green M, Palfrey JS, editors. Bright Futures Family Tip Sheets: Early Adolescence. Arlington (VA): National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health, 2001. Other sources: American Academy of Child and Family Psychiatry and the American Academy of Pediatrics)
Positive Parenting Tips for Healthy Child Development
Talk to your teenager about her concerns and pay attention to any changes in her behavior. Ask her if she has had suicidal thoughts, particularly if she seems sad or depressed. Asking about suicidal thoughts will not cause her to have these thoughts, but it will let her know that you care about how she feels. Seek professional help if necessary.
Show interest in your teenager’s school and extracurricular interests and activities and encourage him to become involved in activities such as sports, music, theater, and art.
Compliment your teenager and celebrate her efforts and accomplishments.
Show affection for your teenager. Spend time together doing things you enjoy.
Respect your teenager’s opinion. Listen to him without playing down his concerns.
Encourage your teenager to volunteer and become involved in civic activities in her community.
Encourage your teenager to develop solutions to problems or conflicts. Help your teenager learn to make good decisions. Create opportunities for him to use his own judgment, and be available for advice and support.
If your teenager engages in interactive Internet media such as games, chat rooms, and instant messaging, encourage him to be disciplined and respectful about the amount of time she is involved with it.
If your teenager works, use the opportunity to talk about expectations, responsibility, and other aspects of behaving respectfully in a public setting.
Talk with your teenager and help him plan ahead for difficult or uncomfortable situations. Discuss what he can do if he is in a group and someone is using drugs, under pressure to have sex, or offered a ride from someone who has been drinking.
Respect your teenager’s need for privacy.
Encourage your teenager to get enough sleep and exercise, and to eat healthy, balanced meals.
Encourage your teenager to have meals with the family. Eating together will help your teenager make better choices about the foods she eats, promote healthy weight, and give family members time to talk with each other. In addition, a teenager who eats meals with the family is more likely to have better grades and less likely to smoke, drink, or use drugs. She is also less likely to get into fights, think about suicide, or engage in sexual activity.
Safety First
Motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death from unintentional injury among teenagers, yet few teenagers take measures to reduce their risk of injury. Unintentional injuries resulting from participation in sports and other activities are also common.
Talk with your teenager about the importance of wearing a seatbelt while driving. Insist that she obey speed limits and traffic lights, and strongly advise her not to drink and drive. Set clear rules for when and where she can use the car, and who can ride with her.
Encourage your teenager to wear a helmet when riding a bike, motorcycle, or all-terrain vehicle.
Suicide is the third leading cause of death among youth 15 through 24 years of age. Talk with your teenager about suicide and pay attention to warning signs.
Talk with your teenager about the dangers of drugs, drinking, smoking, and risky sexual activity. Ask him what he knows and thinks about these issues, and share with him your feelings. Listen to what he says and answer his questions honestly and directly.
Discuss with your teenager the importance of choosing friends who do not act in dangerous or unhealthy ways.
Know where your teenager is and whether an adult is present. Make plans with her for when she will call you, where you can find her, and what time you expect her home.
Links For Parents
The American Academy of Pediatrics has brochures, fact sheets, and other information on various health topics for parents with children of all ages.
CDC’s Division of Adolescent and School Health has a Healthy Youth! webpage that addresses six critical types of adolescent health behavior that contribute to the leading causes of death and disability among adults and youth. The website’s A to Z list addresses other issues that affect children and adolescents.
The National Center on Injury Prevention and Control at CDC has a website that contains information like youth violence, suicide, teen drivers, sexual violence, and other injury-related topics.
KidsHealth by the Nemours Foundation has practical information for parents, teens, and kids.
The American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry has fact sheets for parents on various issues related to child and adolescent development.
Talk With Your Kids is a national initiative by Children Now and the Kaiser Family Foundation to encourage parents to talk with their children early and often about tough issues like sex, HIV/AIDS, violence, and alcohol and drug abuse.
The National Institute of Mental Health and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration have information and resources on child and adolescent mental health.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has information on safety recalls, and safety tips for children riding in motor vehicles, walking, biking, playing outside, waiting at school bus stops, and more.
[Return to Top]
Date: October 24, 2007Content source: National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities
Child Development Preschoolers (3-5 years old
Child Development
Child Development
Preschoolers (3-5 years old)
Developmental Milestones
As your child grows into early childhood, his world will begin to open up. She will become more independent and begin to focus more on adults and children outside of the family. He will want to explore and ask about his surroundings even more.
Her interactions with family and those around her will help to shape her personality and individual ways of thinking and moving. During this stage your child will be able to ride a tricycle, use safety scissors, show awareness of gender identity, help to dress and undress himself, play with other children, recall part of a story, and sing a song.
Positive Parenting
Continue to read to your child. Nurture her love for books by taking her to the library or bookstore.
Let your child help with simple chores.
Encourage your child to play with other children. This helps him to learn the value of sharing and friendship.
Help your child’s language by speaking to her in complete sentences and in “adult” language. Help her to use the correct words and phrases.
Be clear and consistent when disciplining your child. Model the behavior that you expect from him.
Child Safety FirstAs your child becomes more independent and increases her interaction with the outside world, it is important that you and your child are aware of ways to stay safe. Here are a few ways to protect your child.
Tell your child why it is important to stay out of traffic. Tell him not to play in the street or run after stray balls.
Be cautious when letting your child ride her tricycle. Keep her on the sidewalk and away from the street.
Check outdoor playground equipment. Make sure there are no loose parts or sharp edges.
When your child is playing outside, keep watch over him at all times.
Practice water safety. Teach your child to swim.
Teach your child how to interact with strangers and how not to interact.
Child Development
Preschoolers (3-5 years old)
Developmental Milestones
As your child grows into early childhood, his world will begin to open up. She will become more independent and begin to focus more on adults and children outside of the family. He will want to explore and ask about his surroundings even more.
Her interactions with family and those around her will help to shape her personality and individual ways of thinking and moving. During this stage your child will be able to ride a tricycle, use safety scissors, show awareness of gender identity, help to dress and undress himself, play with other children, recall part of a story, and sing a song.
Positive Parenting
Continue to read to your child. Nurture her love for books by taking her to the library or bookstore.
Let your child help with simple chores.
Encourage your child to play with other children. This helps him to learn the value of sharing and friendship.
Help your child’s language by speaking to her in complete sentences and in “adult” language. Help her to use the correct words and phrases.
Be clear and consistent when disciplining your child. Model the behavior that you expect from him.
Child Safety FirstAs your child becomes more independent and increases her interaction with the outside world, it is important that you and your child are aware of ways to stay safe. Here are a few ways to protect your child.
Tell your child why it is important to stay out of traffic. Tell him not to play in the street or run after stray balls.
Be cautious when letting your child ride her tricycle. Keep her on the sidewalk and away from the street.
Check outdoor playground equipment. Make sure there are no loose parts or sharp edges.
When your child is playing outside, keep watch over him at all times.
Practice water safety. Teach your child to swim.
Teach your child how to interact with strangers and how not to interact.
Child Development
Child Development
Child Development
Toddlers (2-3 years old
Developmental MilestonesBecause of your child’s growing desire to assert her independence, this stage is often called the “terrible twos.” However, this can be an exciting time for you and your toddler. He will experience huge intellectual, social, and emotional changes that will help him to explore his new world, and make sense of it.
During this stage, your toddler will be able to follow two- or three-phrase commands, sort objects by shape and color, imitate the actions of adults and playmates, and express a wide range of emotions.
Positive Parenting
Set up a special time to read books with your toddler.
Encourage your child to engage in pretend play.
Play parade or follow the leader with your toddler.
Help your child to explore her surroundings by taking her on a walk or wagon ride.
Encourage your child to tell you his name and age.
Teach your child simple songs like Itsy Bitsy Spider, or other cultural childhood rhymes.
Child Safety First Encourage your toddler to sit when eating and to chew her food thoroughly.
Check toys often for loose or broken parts.
Encourage your toddler not to put pencils or crayons in his mouth when coloring or drawing.
Never leave your toddler near or around water (that is, bathtubs, pools, ponds, lakes, whirlpools, or the ocean) without someone watching her.
Never drink hot objects while your child is sitting on your lap. Sudden movements can cause a spill.
Child Development
Toddlers (2-3 years old
Developmental MilestonesBecause of your child’s growing desire to assert her independence, this stage is often called the “terrible twos.” However, this can be an exciting time for you and your toddler. He will experience huge intellectual, social, and emotional changes that will help him to explore his new world, and make sense of it.
During this stage, your toddler will be able to follow two- or three-phrase commands, sort objects by shape and color, imitate the actions of adults and playmates, and express a wide range of emotions.
Positive Parenting
Set up a special time to read books with your toddler.
Encourage your child to engage in pretend play.
Play parade or follow the leader with your toddler.
Help your child to explore her surroundings by taking her on a walk or wagon ride.
Encourage your child to tell you his name and age.
Teach your child simple songs like Itsy Bitsy Spider, or other cultural childhood rhymes.
Child Safety First Encourage your toddler to sit when eating and to chew her food thoroughly.
Check toys often for loose or broken parts.
Encourage your toddler not to put pencils or crayons in his mouth when coloring or drawing.
Never leave your toddler near or around water (that is, bathtubs, pools, ponds, lakes, whirlpools, or the ocean) without someone watching her.
Never drink hot objects while your child is sitting on your lap. Sudden movements can cause a spill.
Child Development
Child Development
Toddlers (1-2 years old)
Developmental Milestones
During this time, your child is becoming increasingly more mobile, and aware of himself and his surroundings. Her desire to explore new objects and people is also increasing. During this stage, your toddler will show greater independence, begin to show defiant behavior, recognize himself in pictures or a mirror, and imitate the behavior of others, especially adults and older children.
Your toddler will also be able to recognize names of familiar people and objects, form simple phrases and sentences,
Positive Parenting
Keep reading to your toddler daily.
Ask her to find objects for you or name body parts and objects.
Play matching games with your toddler.
Encourage him to explore and try new things.
Help to develop your toddler’s language by talking with her.
Encourage your toddler’s curiosity and ability to recognize common objects by taking field trips together to the park or a bus ride.
Child Safety FirstAs your child is becoming increasingly mobile, his ability to encounter more dangers is increasing as well. Here are a few recommendations to help keep your growing toddler safe.
Block off stairs with a small gate or fence. Lock doors to dangerous places such as the garage or basement.
Toddler proof your home by placing plug covers on all unused electrical outlets.
Keep kitchen appliances, irons, and heaters from the reach of your toddler. Turn pot handles toward the back of the stove.
Keep sharp objects such as scissors and pens in a safe place.
Lock up medicines, household cleaners and poisons.
Never leave her alone in the car, even for a few moments.
Store any guns in a safe place out of his reach.
Toddlers (1-2 years old)
Developmental Milestones
During this time, your child is becoming increasingly more mobile, and aware of himself and his surroundings. Her desire to explore new objects and people is also increasing. During this stage, your toddler will show greater independence, begin to show defiant behavior, recognize himself in pictures or a mirror, and imitate the behavior of others, especially adults and older children.
Your toddler will also be able to recognize names of familiar people and objects, form simple phrases and sentences,
Positive Parenting
Keep reading to your toddler daily.
Ask her to find objects for you or name body parts and objects.
Play matching games with your toddler.
Encourage him to explore and try new things.
Help to develop your toddler’s language by talking with her.
Encourage your toddler’s curiosity and ability to recognize common objects by taking field trips together to the park or a bus ride.
Child Safety FirstAs your child is becoming increasingly mobile, his ability to encounter more dangers is increasing as well. Here are a few recommendations to help keep your growing toddler safe.
Block off stairs with a small gate or fence. Lock doors to dangerous places such as the garage or basement.
Toddler proof your home by placing plug covers on all unused electrical outlets.
Keep kitchen appliances, irons, and heaters from the reach of your toddler. Turn pot handles toward the back of the stove.
Keep sharp objects such as scissors and pens in a safe place.
Lock up medicines, household cleaners and poisons.
Never leave her alone in the car, even for a few moments.
Store any guns in a safe place out of his reach.
Child Development
Child Development
Cognitive development for your baby means the learning process of memory, language, thinking and reasoning. Your baby is learning to recognize the sound of your voice. She is also learning to focus her vision from the periphery or the corner of her eyes to the center. Language development is more than uttering sounds (“babble”), or mama/dada.
Listening, understanding, and knowing the names of people and things are all components of language development. During this stage, your baby is also developing bonds of love and trust with you. The way you cuddle, hold, and play with your baby will set the basis for how he will interact with you and others.
Positive Parenting
Talk to your baby. It is soothing to hear your voice.
When your baby makes sounds, answer him by repeating and adding words. This will help him learn to use language.
Read to your baby. This helps her develop and understand language and sounds.
Sing to your baby.
Play music. This helps your baby develop a love for music and math.
Praise your baby and give him lots of loving attention.
Spend time cuddling and holding your baby. This helps her feel cared for and secure.
The best time to play with your baby is when he’s alert and relaxed. Watch your baby closely for signs of being tired or fussy so that you can take a break.
Parenting can be hard work! Take care of yourself physically, mentally, and emotionally. It is easier to enjoy your new baby and be a positive, loving parent when you are feeling good yourself.
Child Safety FirstNow that your newborn is at home, it is time to make sure that your home is a safe place. Look around your home for household items that might present a possible danger to your baby. As a parent, it is your responsibility to ensure that you create a safe environment for your baby. It is also important that you take the necessary steps to make sure that you are mentally and emotionally ready for your new baby. Here are a few tips to keep your baby safe during her first year of life.
It is important that you never shake your newborn baby. Newborn babies have very weak neck muscles that are not yet able to support their heads. If you shake your baby you can damage his brain and delay normal development.
To prevent SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome), it is recommended that you always put your baby to sleep on her back.
Place your baby in a car safety seat every time he rides in the car. The safest place for his safety seat is in the back seat of the car. Children who are less than one year OR are less than 20 pounds should be placed in a rear-facing care seat.
To prevent your baby from choking, cut her food into small bites. Don’t allow your baby to play with anything that may cover her face or is easy for her to swallow.
Never carry hot liquids or food near your baby or while holding him.
Immunizations (shots) are important to protect your child’s health and safety. Because children are susceptible to many potentially serious diseases, it is important that your child receive the proper immunizations. Please consult your local health care provider to ensure that your child is up-to-date on her childhood immunizations.
Cognitive development for your baby means the learning process of memory, language, thinking and reasoning. Your baby is learning to recognize the sound of your voice. She is also learning to focus her vision from the periphery or the corner of her eyes to the center. Language development is more than uttering sounds (“babble”), or mama/dada.
Listening, understanding, and knowing the names of people and things are all components of language development. During this stage, your baby is also developing bonds of love and trust with you. The way you cuddle, hold, and play with your baby will set the basis for how he will interact with you and others.
Positive Parenting
Talk to your baby. It is soothing to hear your voice.
When your baby makes sounds, answer him by repeating and adding words. This will help him learn to use language.
Read to your baby. This helps her develop and understand language and sounds.
Sing to your baby.
Play music. This helps your baby develop a love for music and math.
Praise your baby and give him lots of loving attention.
Spend time cuddling and holding your baby. This helps her feel cared for and secure.
The best time to play with your baby is when he’s alert and relaxed. Watch your baby closely for signs of being tired or fussy so that you can take a break.
Parenting can be hard work! Take care of yourself physically, mentally, and emotionally. It is easier to enjoy your new baby and be a positive, loving parent when you are feeling good yourself.
Child Safety FirstNow that your newborn is at home, it is time to make sure that your home is a safe place. Look around your home for household items that might present a possible danger to your baby. As a parent, it is your responsibility to ensure that you create a safe environment for your baby. It is also important that you take the necessary steps to make sure that you are mentally and emotionally ready for your new baby. Here are a few tips to keep your baby safe during her first year of life.
It is important that you never shake your newborn baby. Newborn babies have very weak neck muscles that are not yet able to support their heads. If you shake your baby you can damage his brain and delay normal development.
To prevent SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome), it is recommended that you always put your baby to sleep on her back.
Place your baby in a car safety seat every time he rides in the car. The safest place for his safety seat is in the back seat of the car. Children who are less than one year OR are less than 20 pounds should be placed in a rear-facing care seat.
To prevent your baby from choking, cut her food into small bites. Don’t allow your baby to play with anything that may cover her face or is easy for her to swallow.
Never carry hot liquids or food near your baby or while holding him.
Immunizations (shots) are important to protect your child’s health and safety. Because children are susceptible to many potentially serious diseases, it is important that your child receive the proper immunizations. Please consult your local health care provider to ensure that your child is up-to-date on her childhood immunizations.
Child Care
Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD)
What is the NICHD child care study?
The NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD), also known as the Child Care Study or the Day Care Study, is a large, comprehensive study of children and the many environments in which they develop.
The study began in 1991 and has collected information about different non-maternal child care arrangements, and about families who use child care as well as those who do not.
For the purpose of the study, child care included any care provided on a regular basis by someone other than the child’s mother. This description did not include occasional babysitting or any type of care for fewer than 10 hours per week.
What are the goals of the study?
The major goal of the study is to examine how differences in child care experiences relate to children's social, emotional, intellectual, and language development, and to their physical growth and health. You can also learn about other study goals in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development booklet.
The study collected detailed information on the features of child care and the experiences children have in different non-maternal child care settings. The study also collected specifics on the families of the children and on the children themselves.
Researchers collected data at 10 sites around the country. The study population was diverse and included children who were born healthy into a variety of backgrounds.
What aspects of child development did the study measure?
The features studied included (among others):
Cognitive and language development
Social behavior
Emotional development and relationships with parents
Health and physical growth
You can review a complete list of the features the study measured.
What are the major findings of the study?
The study examined how quality, quantity, and type of child care setting affected children's development. Specific findings include:
Higher quality care was associated with better outcomes. Children in higher quality child care had somewhat better language and cognitive development during the first 4½ years of life than those in lower quality care. They were also somewhat more cooperative than those who experienced lower quality care during the first 3 years of life.
Parents and caregivers can help measure the quality of their child's care using the Positive Caregiving Checklist. This checklist is similar to the one used in the study and can help families determine what type of care their children are getting.
For more information on indicators of quality care, see the What is quality child care? section of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development booklet.
Amount of time in care mattered to some degree. Children with higher quantity (total combined number of hours) of experience in child care showed somewhat more behavior problems while in child care and in kindergarten classrooms than those who had experienced fewer hours in care.
For more information on quantity of child care, see the What is quantity of child care? section of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development booklet.
The impact of child care type or setting was different for children of different ages. Center-based child care is associated with both positive and negative effects. This type of care is linked to better cognitive development through age 4½ and to more positive social behaviors through age 3. But children who attended child care centers also showed somewhat more behavior problems just before and just after school entry than children who experienced other non-maternal child care arrangements.
For more information on quantity of child care, see the Child Care Type section of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development booklet.
Parent and family characteristics were more strongly linked to child development than any aspect of child care. Researchers studied the quality of the family environment, parental attitudes, maternal psychological adjustment, and mother's sensitivity. The following characteristics predicted children's cognitive/language and social development: parents' education, family income, and two-parent family compared to single-parent family; mothers' psychological adjustment and sensitivity; and the social and cognitive quality of home environment.
What is the NICHD child care study?
The NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD), also known as the Child Care Study or the Day Care Study, is a large, comprehensive study of children and the many environments in which they develop.
The study began in 1991 and has collected information about different non-maternal child care arrangements, and about families who use child care as well as those who do not.
For the purpose of the study, child care included any care provided on a regular basis by someone other than the child’s mother. This description did not include occasional babysitting or any type of care for fewer than 10 hours per week.
What are the goals of the study?
The major goal of the study is to examine how differences in child care experiences relate to children's social, emotional, intellectual, and language development, and to their physical growth and health. You can also learn about other study goals in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development booklet.
The study collected detailed information on the features of child care and the experiences children have in different non-maternal child care settings. The study also collected specifics on the families of the children and on the children themselves.
Researchers collected data at 10 sites around the country. The study population was diverse and included children who were born healthy into a variety of backgrounds.
What aspects of child development did the study measure?
The features studied included (among others):
Cognitive and language development
Social behavior
Emotional development and relationships with parents
Health and physical growth
You can review a complete list of the features the study measured.
What are the major findings of the study?
The study examined how quality, quantity, and type of child care setting affected children's development. Specific findings include:
Higher quality care was associated with better outcomes. Children in higher quality child care had somewhat better language and cognitive development during the first 4½ years of life than those in lower quality care. They were also somewhat more cooperative than those who experienced lower quality care during the first 3 years of life.
Parents and caregivers can help measure the quality of their child's care using the Positive Caregiving Checklist. This checklist is similar to the one used in the study and can help families determine what type of care their children are getting.
For more information on indicators of quality care, see the What is quality child care? section of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development booklet.
Amount of time in care mattered to some degree. Children with higher quantity (total combined number of hours) of experience in child care showed somewhat more behavior problems while in child care and in kindergarten classrooms than those who had experienced fewer hours in care.
For more information on quantity of child care, see the What is quantity of child care? section of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development booklet.
The impact of child care type or setting was different for children of different ages. Center-based child care is associated with both positive and negative effects. This type of care is linked to better cognitive development through age 4½ and to more positive social behaviors through age 3. But children who attended child care centers also showed somewhat more behavior problems just before and just after school entry than children who experienced other non-maternal child care arrangements.
For more information on quantity of child care, see the Child Care Type section of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development booklet.
Parent and family characteristics were more strongly linked to child development than any aspect of child care. Researchers studied the quality of the family environment, parental attitudes, maternal psychological adjustment, and mother's sensitivity. The following characteristics predicted children's cognitive/language and social development: parents' education, family income, and two-parent family compared to single-parent family; mothers' psychological adjustment and sensitivity; and the social and cognitive quality of home environment.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
What are Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)?
STDs, also called sexually transmitted infections or STIs, are diseases that you get by having intimate sexual contact, that is having sex (vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse), with someone who already has the disease. Every year, STDs affect more than 13 million people.
What are the different types of STDs?
Researchers have identified more than 20 different kinds of STDs, which can fall into two main groups:
STDs caused by bacteria - These diseases can be treated and often cured with antibiotics. Some bacterial STDs include: chlamydia, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis, and syphilis.
STDs caused by viruses - These diseases can be controlled, but not cured. If you get a viral STD, you will always have it. Some viral STDs include: HIV/AIDS, genital herpes, genital warts, human papilloma virus (HPV), hepatitis B virus, and cytomegalovirus.
What are the symptoms of STDs?
The symptoms vary among the different types of STDs. Some examples of common symptoms include:
Unusual discharge from the penis or vagina
Sores or warts on the genital area
Burning while urinating
Itching and redness in the genital area
Anal itching, soreness, or bleeding
If you are having any of these symptoms or think you might have an STD, talk to your health care provider.
How can STDs be prevented?
The only way to ensure that you won't get infected is to not have sex. This means avoiding all types of intimate sexual contact.
If you are sexually active, you can reduce your risk of getting STDs by practicing "safe sex." This means:
Using a condom for vaginal, oral, and anal intercourse—every time
Knowing your partner and his/her STD status and health
Having regular medical check-ups, especially if you have more than one sexual partner
What are Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)?
STDs, also called sexually transmitted infections or STIs, are diseases that you get by having intimate sexual contact, that is having sex (vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse), with someone who already has the disease. Every year, STDs affect more than 13 million people.
What are the different types of STDs?
Researchers have identified more than 20 different kinds of STDs, which can fall into two main groups:
STDs caused by bacteria - These diseases can be treated and often cured with antibiotics. Some bacterial STDs include: chlamydia, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis, and syphilis.
STDs caused by viruses - These diseases can be controlled, but not cured. If you get a viral STD, you will always have it. Some viral STDs include: HIV/AIDS, genital herpes, genital warts, human papilloma virus (HPV), hepatitis B virus, and cytomegalovirus.
What are the symptoms of STDs?
The symptoms vary among the different types of STDs. Some examples of common symptoms include:
Unusual discharge from the penis or vagina
Sores or warts on the genital area
Burning while urinating
Itching and redness in the genital area
Anal itching, soreness, or bleeding
If you are having any of these symptoms or think you might have an STD, talk to your health care provider.
How can STDs be prevented?
The only way to ensure that you won't get infected is to not have sex. This means avoiding all types of intimate sexual contact.
If you are sexually active, you can reduce your risk of getting STDs by practicing "safe sex." This means:
Using a condom for vaginal, oral, and anal intercourse—every time
Knowing your partner and his/her STD status and health
Having regular medical check-ups, especially if you have more than one sexual partner
Breastfeeding
What is breastfeeding?
Breastfeeding, also called nursing, can be an easy and inexpensive way for a mother to feed her child.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Policy Statement on Breastfeeding, women who don’t have health problems should exclusively breastfeed their infants for at least the first six months of life. The AAP suggests that women try to breastfeed for the first 12 months of life because of the benefits to both the mother and baby.-->
What are the benefits of breastfeeding?
Breastfeeding offers many benefits to the baby:
Breast milk provides the right balance of nutrients to help an infant grow into a strong and healthy toddler.
Breastfed infants, and those who are fed expressed breast milk, have fewer deaths during the first year and experience fewer illnesses than babies fed formula.
Some of the nutrients in breast milk also help protect an infant against some common childhood illnesses and infections, such as diarrhea, middle ear infections, and certain lung infections.
Some recent NICHD-supported research also suggests that breast milk contains important fatty acids (building blocks) that help an infant's brain develop. Two specific fatty acids, known as DHA and AA, may help increase infants’ cognitive skills. Many types of infant formulas available in the United States are fortified with DHA and AA, and all formula available for preterm infants is fortified with these fatty acids.
Breastfeeding also benefits the mother:
In response to the baby's sucking, the mother's body releases a hormone that makes her uterus contract and get smaller.
Many mothers also get emotional benefits from breastfeeding because of the closeness of this interaction with the baby and from the satisfaction of helping to nourish their babies.
Some research suggest that mothers who breastfeed their babies have fewer episodes of post-delivery depression.
There is evolving evidence to indicate that certain types of cancer (such as breast, uterus, and ovarian cancer) occur less often in mothers who have breastfed their babies.
Many societies and cultures also encourage mothers to breastfeed, which can offer support to a new mother.
What if I have trouble breastfeeding?
Even though breastfeeding is a natural process, it's not always easy. Many health care providers suggest that women work with a lactation counselor (also known as lactation consultant) or lactation specialist to learn how to breastfeed and what is involved with breastfeeding. Many health centers, clinics, and hospitals have lactation counselors on staff. Ask your health care provider for more information about getting help with breastfeeding. Even with help, though, some women still have trouble breastfeeding or cannot breastfeed. -->
Are there cases in which it is better not to breastfeed?
In certain situations, health care providers may advise a woman not to breastfeed:
A woman with certain health conditions, such as HIV or active tuberculosis, should not breastfeed because she risks giving the infection to her infant through her breast milk.
Women who actively use drugs or do not control their alcohol intake, or who have a history of these situations, may also be advised not to breastfeed.
Certain medicines, including some mood stabilizers and migraine medicines, can also pass through the breast milk and cause harm to the infant.
Women with certain chronic illnesses may be advised not to breastfeed, or to take special steps to ensure their own health while breastfeeding. For example, women who have diabetes may need to eat slightly more food while they breastfeed, to prevent their blood sugar levels from dropping.
Women who have had breast surgery in the past may face some difficulties in breastfeeding.
Please note: engorgement, hardening of the breast, “breast abscess,” fever, and use of pain medications or antibiotics are NOT reasons to stop breastfeeding. In fact, in some cases—such as breast abscess or breast hardening—emptying of the breast helps to relieve the problem.
If a mother stops breastfeeding before the child is a year old, then she should feed her infant iron-fortified, commercially available formula. Health care providers advise women not to give their infants cow's milk until the child is at least a year old.
If you have any health conditions, or you are taking any medications or over-the-counter supplements, you should discuss breastfeeding with your health care provider.
Breastfeeding, also called nursing, can be an easy and inexpensive way for a mother to feed her child.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Policy Statement on Breastfeeding, women who don’t have health problems should exclusively breastfeed their infants for at least the first six months of life. The AAP suggests that women try to breastfeed for the first 12 months of life because of the benefits to both the mother and baby.-->
What are the benefits of breastfeeding?
Breastfeeding offers many benefits to the baby:
Breast milk provides the right balance of nutrients to help an infant grow into a strong and healthy toddler.
Breastfed infants, and those who are fed expressed breast milk, have fewer deaths during the first year and experience fewer illnesses than babies fed formula.
Some of the nutrients in breast milk also help protect an infant against some common childhood illnesses and infections, such as diarrhea, middle ear infections, and certain lung infections.
Some recent NICHD-supported research also suggests that breast milk contains important fatty acids (building blocks) that help an infant's brain develop. Two specific fatty acids, known as DHA and AA, may help increase infants’ cognitive skills. Many types of infant formulas available in the United States are fortified with DHA and AA, and all formula available for preterm infants is fortified with these fatty acids.
Breastfeeding also benefits the mother:
In response to the baby's sucking, the mother's body releases a hormone that makes her uterus contract and get smaller.
Many mothers also get emotional benefits from breastfeeding because of the closeness of this interaction with the baby and from the satisfaction of helping to nourish their babies.
Some research suggest that mothers who breastfeed their babies have fewer episodes of post-delivery depression.
There is evolving evidence to indicate that certain types of cancer (such as breast, uterus, and ovarian cancer) occur less often in mothers who have breastfed their babies.
Many societies and cultures also encourage mothers to breastfeed, which can offer support to a new mother.
What if I have trouble breastfeeding?
Even though breastfeeding is a natural process, it's not always easy. Many health care providers suggest that women work with a lactation counselor (also known as lactation consultant) or lactation specialist to learn how to breastfeed and what is involved with breastfeeding. Many health centers, clinics, and hospitals have lactation counselors on staff. Ask your health care provider for more information about getting help with breastfeeding. Even with help, though, some women still have trouble breastfeeding or cannot breastfeed. -->
Are there cases in which it is better not to breastfeed?
In certain situations, health care providers may advise a woman not to breastfeed:
A woman with certain health conditions, such as HIV or active tuberculosis, should not breastfeed because she risks giving the infection to her infant through her breast milk.
Women who actively use drugs or do not control their alcohol intake, or who have a history of these situations, may also be advised not to breastfeed.
Certain medicines, including some mood stabilizers and migraine medicines, can also pass through the breast milk and cause harm to the infant.
Women with certain chronic illnesses may be advised not to breastfeed, or to take special steps to ensure their own health while breastfeeding. For example, women who have diabetes may need to eat slightly more food while they breastfeed, to prevent their blood sugar levels from dropping.
Women who have had breast surgery in the past may face some difficulties in breastfeeding.
Please note: engorgement, hardening of the breast, “breast abscess,” fever, and use of pain medications or antibiotics are NOT reasons to stop breastfeeding. In fact, in some cases—such as breast abscess or breast hardening—emptying of the breast helps to relieve the problem.
If a mother stops breastfeeding before the child is a year old, then she should feed her infant iron-fortified, commercially available formula. Health care providers advise women not to give their infants cow's milk until the child is at least a year old.
If you have any health conditions, or you are taking any medications or over-the-counter supplements, you should discuss breastfeeding with your health care provider.
Calcium
Calcium
What is calcium?
Calcium is a mineral your body needs to help build strong bones and healthy teeth. Low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products are especially good sources of calcium.
Why is calcium important for strong bones and teeth?
Bones are living tissue. Our bodies continually remove and replace small amounts of calcium from our bones as they grow. If more calcium is removed than is replaced, bones become weaker and have a greater chance of breaking.
If you get enough calcium from the foods you eat and drink, your body doesn’t have to take the calcium from your bones and bones can stay strong. In fact, getting enough calcium when you’re young can help prevent osteoporosis, a condition that makes bones weak and more likely to break. Calcium also can help build strong teeth. Both baby teeth and adult teeth need calcium to grow and develop. Calcium can also help protect teeth against tooth decay. Calcium also helps make gums healthy and makes jawbones strong too.
How much calcium do kids need?
Visit the How much calcium do kids need? section of the Milk Matters web site to see a chart about calcium needs for different age groups.
What are good sources of calcium?
Calcium is found in a variety of foods. Low-fat and fat-free milk and other dairy products are great sources of calcium because of they have so much of it.
Tweens and teens can get most of their daily calcium from 3 cups of low-fat or fat-free milk, but they also need additional servings of calcium to get the 1,300 mg necessary for strong bones.
Other reasons low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products are great sources of calcium include:
Low-fat and fat-free milk has lots of calcium with little or no fat.
The calcium in low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products is easy for the body to absorb and in a form that gives the body easy access to the calcium
Low-fat and fat-free milk has added vitamin D, which is important for helping your body better absorb calcium.
In addition to calcium, milk and dairy products provide other essential nutrients that are important for optimal bone health and development.
In addition to low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products, there are other good sources of calcium, including:
Dark green, leafy vegetables, such as spinach, broccoli, and bok choy
Foods with calcium added, such as calcium-fortified tofu, orange juice, soy beverages, and breakfast cereals or breads
What is calcium?
Calcium is a mineral your body needs to help build strong bones and healthy teeth. Low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products are especially good sources of calcium.
Why is calcium important for strong bones and teeth?
Bones are living tissue. Our bodies continually remove and replace small amounts of calcium from our bones as they grow. If more calcium is removed than is replaced, bones become weaker and have a greater chance of breaking.
If you get enough calcium from the foods you eat and drink, your body doesn’t have to take the calcium from your bones and bones can stay strong. In fact, getting enough calcium when you’re young can help prevent osteoporosis, a condition that makes bones weak and more likely to break. Calcium also can help build strong teeth. Both baby teeth and adult teeth need calcium to grow and develop. Calcium can also help protect teeth against tooth decay. Calcium also helps make gums healthy and makes jawbones strong too.
How much calcium do kids need?
Visit the How much calcium do kids need? section of the Milk Matters web site to see a chart about calcium needs for different age groups.
What are good sources of calcium?
Calcium is found in a variety of foods. Low-fat and fat-free milk and other dairy products are great sources of calcium because of they have so much of it.
Tweens and teens can get most of their daily calcium from 3 cups of low-fat or fat-free milk, but they also need additional servings of calcium to get the 1,300 mg necessary for strong bones.
Other reasons low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products are great sources of calcium include:
Low-fat and fat-free milk has lots of calcium with little or no fat.
The calcium in low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products is easy for the body to absorb and in a form that gives the body easy access to the calcium
Low-fat and fat-free milk has added vitamin D, which is important for helping your body better absorb calcium.
In addition to calcium, milk and dairy products provide other essential nutrients that are important for optimal bone health and development.
In addition to low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products, there are other good sources of calcium, including:
Dark green, leafy vegetables, such as spinach, broccoli, and bok choy
Foods with calcium added, such as calcium-fortified tofu, orange juice, soy beverages, and breakfast cereals or breads
Contraception
Contraception
What is contraception?
Contraception, also known as birth control, is designed to prevent pregnancy. -->
What are some methods of contraception?
There are several general methods of birth control, including (but not limited to):
Barrier methods, such as condoms, the diaphragm, and the cervical cap, designed to prevent the sperm from reaching the egg for fertilization.
Intrauterine device, or IUD, is a small device that is inserted into the uterus by a health care provider. The IUD prevents a fertilized egg from implanting in the uterus. An IUD can stay in the uterus for up to 10 years until it is removed by a health care provider.
Hormonal birth control, such as birth control pills, injections, skin patches, and vaginal rings, release hormones into a woman’s body that interfere with fertility by preventing ovulation, fertilization, or implantation.
Sterilization is a method that permanently prevents a woman from getting pregnant or a man from being able to get a woman pregnant. Sterilization involves surgical procedures that must be done by a health care provider and usually cannot be reversed.
The choice of birth control depends on factors such as a person's overall health, age, frequency of sexual activity, number of sexual partners, desire to have children in the future, and family history of certain diseases. A woman should talk to her health care provider about her choice of birth control method.
It is important to remember that even though all these methods can prevent pregnancy, condoms are the only method that can protect against sexually transmitted diseases or HIV.
What is contraception?
Contraception, also known as birth control, is designed to prevent pregnancy. -->
What are some methods of contraception?
There are several general methods of birth control, including (but not limited to):
Barrier methods, such as condoms, the diaphragm, and the cervical cap, designed to prevent the sperm from reaching the egg for fertilization.
Intrauterine device, or IUD, is a small device that is inserted into the uterus by a health care provider. The IUD prevents a fertilized egg from implanting in the uterus. An IUD can stay in the uterus for up to 10 years until it is removed by a health care provider.
Hormonal birth control, such as birth control pills, injections, skin patches, and vaginal rings, release hormones into a woman’s body that interfere with fertility by preventing ovulation, fertilization, or implantation.
Sterilization is a method that permanently prevents a woman from getting pregnant or a man from being able to get a woman pregnant. Sterilization involves surgical procedures that must be done by a health care provider and usually cannot be reversed.
The choice of birth control depends on factors such as a person's overall health, age, frequency of sexual activity, number of sexual partners, desire to have children in the future, and family history of certain diseases. A woman should talk to her health care provider about her choice of birth control method.
It is important to remember that even though all these methods can prevent pregnancy, condoms are the only method that can protect against sexually transmitted diseases or HIV.
Bacterial Vaginosis
Bacterial Vaginosis
What is bacterial vaginosis?
Bacterial vaginosis is an infection of the vagina. It occurs when there are too many bacteria that are normally present in the vagina. It is the most common vaginal infection in women of reproductive age.
What are the symptoms of bacterial vaginosis?
Bacterial vaginosis often causes a thin, milky discharge from the vagina that is described as having a “fishy” odor. This odor may be more noticeable after sexual intercourse. Redness or itching of the vagina is not common. In fact, some women with bacterial vaginosis have no symptoms at all.
In addition, having bacterial vaginosis increases the risk of getting other sexually transmitted diseases. The condition has also been associated with pelvic inflammatory disease.
Bacterial vaginosis is thought to be associated with preterm labor and preterm birth.
What are the treatments for bacterial vaginosis?
A health care provider can prescribe an antibiotic to treat bacterial vaginosis. The medication will bring the level of bacteria in the vagina back into a healthy range. There are no over-the-counter treatments for bacterial vaginosis. -->
What is bacterial vaginosis?
Bacterial vaginosis is an infection of the vagina. It occurs when there are too many bacteria that are normally present in the vagina. It is the most common vaginal infection in women of reproductive age.
What are the symptoms of bacterial vaginosis?
Bacterial vaginosis often causes a thin, milky discharge from the vagina that is described as having a “fishy” odor. This odor may be more noticeable after sexual intercourse. Redness or itching of the vagina is not common. In fact, some women with bacterial vaginosis have no symptoms at all.
In addition, having bacterial vaginosis increases the risk of getting other sexually transmitted diseases. The condition has also been associated with pelvic inflammatory disease.
Bacterial vaginosis is thought to be associated with preterm labor and preterm birth.
What are the treatments for bacterial vaginosis?
A health care provider can prescribe an antibiotic to treat bacterial vaginosis. The medication will bring the level of bacteria in the vagina back into a healthy range. There are no over-the-counter treatments for bacterial vaginosis. -->
Asperger Syndrome
Asperger Syndrome
What is Asperger syndrome?
Asperger syndrome is an autism spectrum disorder, a group of conditions that include autism and other disorders with similar symptoms, such as problems with language and communication, and repetitive or restrictive patterns of thoughts and behavior.
People with Asperger syndrome have autism-like problems in areas of social interaction and communication, but have normal intelligence and verbal skills. Asperger syndrome is usually thought to be the mildest of the autism spectrum disorders.-->
What are the symptoms of Asperger syndrome?
One of the most distinct symptoms of Asperger syndrome is having an obsessive interest in a single object or topic—so much so that the person ignores other objects, topics, or thoughts.
Unlike some children with autism spectrum disorders, children with Asperger syndrome tend to have good vocabularies and grammar skills. But they usually have other language problems, such as being very literal and having trouble understanding non-verbal communications, such as body language.Other symptoms of Asperger syndrome may include:
Obsessive or repetitive routines and rituals
Motor-skill problems, such as clumsy or uncoordinated movements and delays in motor skills
Social-skill problems, especially related to communicating with others
Sensitivity to sensory information, such as light, sound, texture, and taste
What is the treatment for Asperger syndrome?
There is no cure for Asperger syndrome, but people with Asperger syndrome can live full and happy lives, especially with early treatment intervention.
Treatment for Asperger syndrome can include educational and social skills training.
What is Asperger syndrome?
Asperger syndrome is an autism spectrum disorder, a group of conditions that include autism and other disorders with similar symptoms, such as problems with language and communication, and repetitive or restrictive patterns of thoughts and behavior.
People with Asperger syndrome have autism-like problems in areas of social interaction and communication, but have normal intelligence and verbal skills. Asperger syndrome is usually thought to be the mildest of the autism spectrum disorders.-->
What are the symptoms of Asperger syndrome?
One of the most distinct symptoms of Asperger syndrome is having an obsessive interest in a single object or topic—so much so that the person ignores other objects, topics, or thoughts.
Unlike some children with autism spectrum disorders, children with Asperger syndrome tend to have good vocabularies and grammar skills. But they usually have other language problems, such as being very literal and having trouble understanding non-verbal communications, such as body language.Other symptoms of Asperger syndrome may include:
Obsessive or repetitive routines and rituals
Motor-skill problems, such as clumsy or uncoordinated movements and delays in motor skills
Social-skill problems, especially related to communicating with others
Sensitivity to sensory information, such as light, sound, texture, and taste
What is the treatment for Asperger syndrome?
There is no cure for Asperger syndrome, but people with Asperger syndrome can live full and happy lives, especially with early treatment intervention.
Treatment for Asperger syndrome can include educational and social skills training.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, also known as CAH or 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency, is a genetic disorder of the adrenal glands.
Normally, the adrenal glands help keep the body in balance by making the right amounts of hormones, such as cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens.
In people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, the body doesn’t make enough of the hormone cortisol. Their bodies may also not make aldosterone. Instead, their adrenal glands make too much androgen.
(View a picture of the adrenal glands and a patient education page about the adrenal glands)
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is caused by an error on a single gene. It is inherited, meaning it is passed down from parents to their children. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is the most common autosomal recessive genetic disorder in humans. -->
What are the symptoms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
Symptoms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia range from mild to serious. Some people with mild congenital adrenal hyperplasia might never be diagnosed because their symptoms do not cause them any problems.
Symptoms of the mild form of CAH may include:
Shorter height than their parents
Early signs of puberty (in children)
Acne
Irregular periods and possible trouble getting pregnant (in women)
Excess facial hair (in women)
Symptoms of the severe form of CAH may include:
Dehydration
Low blood pressure
Low blood sugar level
Trouble keeping enough salt in their bodies
Altered development of the external genitalia in girls which is noted at birth and may require surgery to correct
Shorter height than their parents
Early signs of puberty (in children)
Irregular periods and possible trouble getting pregnant (in women)
Excess facial hair (in women)
Benign testicular tumors and infertility (in men)
Testing for the severe form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is now part of routine newborn screening done in most states.
What are the treatments for congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia can’t be cured, but it can be treated. People with congenital adrenal hyperplasia can take medication to help replace the hormones their bodies are not making. Some people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (those with the mild form) only need these medications when they are sick, while others (those with the severe form) need to take them every day for their entire life. The severe form of CAH can be life threatening without medication.
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, also known as CAH or 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency, is a genetic disorder of the adrenal glands.
Normally, the adrenal glands help keep the body in balance by making the right amounts of hormones, such as cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens.
In people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, the body doesn’t make enough of the hormone cortisol. Their bodies may also not make aldosterone. Instead, their adrenal glands make too much androgen.
(View a picture of the adrenal glands and a patient education page about the adrenal glands)
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is caused by an error on a single gene. It is inherited, meaning it is passed down from parents to their children. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is the most common autosomal recessive genetic disorder in humans. -->
What are the symptoms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
Symptoms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia range from mild to serious. Some people with mild congenital adrenal hyperplasia might never be diagnosed because their symptoms do not cause them any problems.
Symptoms of the mild form of CAH may include:
Shorter height than their parents
Early signs of puberty (in children)
Acne
Irregular periods and possible trouble getting pregnant (in women)
Excess facial hair (in women)
Symptoms of the severe form of CAH may include:
Dehydration
Low blood pressure
Low blood sugar level
Trouble keeping enough salt in their bodies
Altered development of the external genitalia in girls which is noted at birth and may require surgery to correct
Shorter height than their parents
Early signs of puberty (in children)
Irregular periods and possible trouble getting pregnant (in women)
Excess facial hair (in women)
Benign testicular tumors and infertility (in men)
Testing for the severe form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is now part of routine newborn screening done in most states.
What are the treatments for congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia can’t be cured, but it can be treated. People with congenital adrenal hyperplasia can take medication to help replace the hormones their bodies are not making. Some people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (those with the mild form) only need these medications when they are sick, while others (those with the severe form) need to take them every day for their entire life. The severe form of CAH can be life threatening without medication.
Infertility/Fertility
Infertility/Fertility
What is infertility?
Infertility is the term health care providers use for women who are unable to get pregnant, and for men who are unable to impregnate a woman, after at least one year of trying.
In women, the term is used to describe those who are of normal childbearing age, not those who can’t get pregnant because they are near or past menopause.
Women who are able to get pregnant but who cannot carry a pregnancy to term (birth) may also be considered infertile.-->
What causes infertility?
Infertility does not have a single cause because successful pregnancy is a multi-step chain of events.
Simply described, pregnancy includes the following steps: A woman’s ovaries must be able to release a viable egg, which then must be able to travel down the fallopian tube. The man must be able to ejaculate, and his sperm must be able to travel to the fallopian tube. The sperm and egg must unite to fertilize the egg. The fertilized egg must attach to the inside of a receptive uterus (or implant) and be nurtured by the body to allow the fetus to develop and grow until it is ready for birth.
Problems with any of these steps can lead to infertility.
The cause of infertility can rest in the woman or the man, or can be from unknown factors or a combination of factors. In some cases, environmental factors can contribute to infertility. In other cases, genetic conditions or other health problems are the main cause of infertility.
Female infertilityAs explained above, female fertility requires a variety of conditions to be successful. If even one of these conditions is not met, or is not met for the right amount of time, the pregnancy may either not happen or it may end before birth.Most cases of infertility in women result from problems with ovulation. Some conditions affecting ovulation include premature ovarian failure, in which the ovaries stop functioning before natural menopause, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), in which the ovaries may not release an egg regularly or may not release a viable, healthy egg. Among women who have PCOS, even when a healthy egg is released and fertilized, the uterus may not be receptive to implantation of a fertilized egg, which results in infertility. Other causes of infertility might include:
Blocked fallopian tubes due to endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, or surgery
Physical problems with the uterine wall
Uterine fibroids
A woman’s risk for infertility can also be affected by certain lifestyle and environmental factors, including (but not limited to):
Age
Stress
Poor diet
Being overweight or underweight
Smoking, drugs, and alcohol
Medication
Environmental toxins
Genetic conditions, such as being a carrier of Fragile X syndrome
Other health problems, such as sexually transmitted diseases
Male infertility
The male fertility process involves the production of mature sperm and getting the sperm to reach and fertilize the egg. Although it may seem to be a simpler process than female fertility, male fertility also requires many conditions to be met: the ability to have and sustain an erection, having enough sperm, having enough semen to carry the sperm to the egg, and having sperm of the right shape that move in the right way. A problem meeting any of these conditions contributes to infertility.
Like female infertility, male infertility can result from physical problems, such as testes that don’t make enough normal sperm, hormonal problems, and lifestyle or environmental factors, including (but not limited to):
Age
Stress
Exposing the testes to high temperatures, which can affect the ability of the sperm to move and to fertilize an egg. For instance:
Cryptorchism is a condition where the testes do not descend into the scrotum. Although it does not usually affect the ability to have and sustain an erection, cryptorchism means that the testes are still inside the body cavity, which has a higher temperature than the external scrotum.
Tight underwear—For some men, wearing tight underwear can also increase the temperature of the testes.
Smoking, drugs, and alcohol
Medications
Environmental toxins
Genetic conditions, such as Klinefelter syndrome
Other health problems
But, in some cases, health care providers cannot determine a cause for infertility in the man or woman. In addition, some known causes of infertility do not have any treatments-->
How is infertility diagnosed?
Although not getting pregnant is an indication of possible infertility, only a health care provider can provide a diagnosis of infertility. Those who suspect they are infertile should see their health care providers, including:
Couples who have been trying to conceive for a year without getting pregnant
Women who have experienced menstrual irregularities or who have had endometriosis or uterine fibroids
Women who have gotten pregnant but who have had more than one miscarriage or stillbirth
Men and women with certain genetic conditions
What are the treatments for infertility?
There are a variety of ways to treat infertility, including:
Medication
Surgery
Intrauterine insemination/artificial insemination (woman is injected with carefully prepared sperm from the husband, partner, or a donor)
Assisted reproductive technology (ART), such as in vitro fertilization
Most often, health care providers treat infertility with medication or surgical repair of the reproductive organs. In addition, lifestyle changes may also help alleviate infertility, such as reducing stress, diet modification, stopping use of drugs or alcohol, or reducing the temperature around the testes.-->
What is infertility?
Infertility is the term health care providers use for women who are unable to get pregnant, and for men who are unable to impregnate a woman, after at least one year of trying.
In women, the term is used to describe those who are of normal childbearing age, not those who can’t get pregnant because they are near or past menopause.
Women who are able to get pregnant but who cannot carry a pregnancy to term (birth) may also be considered infertile.-->
What causes infertility?
Infertility does not have a single cause because successful pregnancy is a multi-step chain of events.
Simply described, pregnancy includes the following steps: A woman’s ovaries must be able to release a viable egg, which then must be able to travel down the fallopian tube. The man must be able to ejaculate, and his sperm must be able to travel to the fallopian tube. The sperm and egg must unite to fertilize the egg. The fertilized egg must attach to the inside of a receptive uterus (or implant) and be nurtured by the body to allow the fetus to develop and grow until it is ready for birth.
Problems with any of these steps can lead to infertility.
The cause of infertility can rest in the woman or the man, or can be from unknown factors or a combination of factors. In some cases, environmental factors can contribute to infertility. In other cases, genetic conditions or other health problems are the main cause of infertility.
Female infertilityAs explained above, female fertility requires a variety of conditions to be successful. If even one of these conditions is not met, or is not met for the right amount of time, the pregnancy may either not happen or it may end before birth.Most cases of infertility in women result from problems with ovulation. Some conditions affecting ovulation include premature ovarian failure, in which the ovaries stop functioning before natural menopause, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), in which the ovaries may not release an egg regularly or may not release a viable, healthy egg. Among women who have PCOS, even when a healthy egg is released and fertilized, the uterus may not be receptive to implantation of a fertilized egg, which results in infertility. Other causes of infertility might include:
Blocked fallopian tubes due to endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, or surgery
Physical problems with the uterine wall
Uterine fibroids
A woman’s risk for infertility can also be affected by certain lifestyle and environmental factors, including (but not limited to):
Age
Stress
Poor diet
Being overweight or underweight
Smoking, drugs, and alcohol
Medication
Environmental toxins
Genetic conditions, such as being a carrier of Fragile X syndrome
Other health problems, such as sexually transmitted diseases
Male infertility
The male fertility process involves the production of mature sperm and getting the sperm to reach and fertilize the egg. Although it may seem to be a simpler process than female fertility, male fertility also requires many conditions to be met: the ability to have and sustain an erection, having enough sperm, having enough semen to carry the sperm to the egg, and having sperm of the right shape that move in the right way. A problem meeting any of these conditions contributes to infertility.
Like female infertility, male infertility can result from physical problems, such as testes that don’t make enough normal sperm, hormonal problems, and lifestyle or environmental factors, including (but not limited to):
Age
Stress
Exposing the testes to high temperatures, which can affect the ability of the sperm to move and to fertilize an egg. For instance:
Cryptorchism is a condition where the testes do not descend into the scrotum. Although it does not usually affect the ability to have and sustain an erection, cryptorchism means that the testes are still inside the body cavity, which has a higher temperature than the external scrotum.
Tight underwear—For some men, wearing tight underwear can also increase the temperature of the testes.
Smoking, drugs, and alcohol
Medications
Environmental toxins
Genetic conditions, such as Klinefelter syndrome
Other health problems
But, in some cases, health care providers cannot determine a cause for infertility in the man or woman. In addition, some known causes of infertility do not have any treatments-->
How is infertility diagnosed?
Although not getting pregnant is an indication of possible infertility, only a health care provider can provide a diagnosis of infertility. Those who suspect they are infertile should see their health care providers, including:
Couples who have been trying to conceive for a year without getting pregnant
Women who have experienced menstrual irregularities or who have had endometriosis or uterine fibroids
Women who have gotten pregnant but who have had more than one miscarriage or stillbirth
Men and women with certain genetic conditions
What are the treatments for infertility?
There are a variety of ways to treat infertility, including:
Medication
Surgery
Intrauterine insemination/artificial insemination (woman is injected with carefully prepared sperm from the husband, partner, or a donor)
Assisted reproductive technology (ART), such as in vitro fertilization
Most often, health care providers treat infertility with medication or surgical repair of the reproductive organs. In addition, lifestyle changes may also help alleviate infertility, such as reducing stress, diet modification, stopping use of drugs or alcohol, or reducing the temperature around the testes.-->
Endometriosis
Endometriosis
What is endometriosis?
Endometriosis occurs when tissues that usually grow inside uterus instead grow on the outside. These tissues often grow on the surfaces of organs in the pelvis or abdomen, where they are not supposed to grow.
View a diagram that shows where endometriosis might grow.
Endometriosis is one of the most common gynecological diseases, affecting more than 5.5 million women in North America. An estimated 2 percent to 10 percent of women of reproductive age have endometriosis.
What are the symptoms of endometriosis?
The two most common symptoms of endometriosis are pain and infertility.
Symptoms can include:
Pain before or after menstrual periods, as well as during or after sex
Lower back, intestinal, or pelvic pain
Heavy menstrual periods, or spotting and bleeding between periods
Painful bowel movements or painful urination during menstrual periods
Infertility - About 30 percent to 40 percent of women with endometriosis are infertile, making it one of the top three causes for female infertility
In most cases, the symptoms of endometriosis become milder after menopause because the growths begin to get smaller.
What are the treatments for endometriosis?
There is currently no cure for endometriosis. But a variety of treatment options exist, and there are ways to minimize the symptoms caused by the condition.
There are several ways to treat pain, including:
Pain medication – may be used to relieve symptoms
Hormone therapy – may be used to control the growth of endometriosis
Surgery – may be used to remove growths or control the size of very large endometriosis and to relieve pain.
Hormone treatments and surgery may help women who are unable to become pregnant. There are also other treatments for infertility associated with endometriosis.
What is endometriosis?
Endometriosis occurs when tissues that usually grow inside uterus instead grow on the outside. These tissues often grow on the surfaces of organs in the pelvis or abdomen, where they are not supposed to grow.
View a diagram that shows where endometriosis might grow.
Endometriosis is one of the most common gynecological diseases, affecting more than 5.5 million women in North America. An estimated 2 percent to 10 percent of women of reproductive age have endometriosis.
What are the symptoms of endometriosis?
The two most common symptoms of endometriosis are pain and infertility.
Symptoms can include:
Pain before or after menstrual periods, as well as during or after sex
Lower back, intestinal, or pelvic pain
Heavy menstrual periods, or spotting and bleeding between periods
Painful bowel movements or painful urination during menstrual periods
Infertility - About 30 percent to 40 percent of women with endometriosis are infertile, making it one of the top three causes for female infertility
In most cases, the symptoms of endometriosis become milder after menopause because the growths begin to get smaller.
What are the treatments for endometriosis?
There is currently no cure for endometriosis. But a variety of treatment options exist, and there are ways to minimize the symptoms caused by the condition.
There are several ways to treat pain, including:
Pain medication – may be used to relieve symptoms
Hormone therapy – may be used to control the growth of endometriosis
Surgery – may be used to remove growths or control the size of very large endometriosis and to relieve pain.
Hormone treatments and surgery may help women who are unable to become pregnant. There are also other treatments for infertility associated with endometriosis.
Uterine Fibroids
Uterine Fibroids
What are uterine fibroids?
Uterine fibroids are the most common, non-cancerous tumors in women of childbearing age. The fibroids are made of muscle cells and other tissues that grow within and around the wall of the uterus.
View a diagram that shows where uterine fibroids may grow.-->
Who is at risk for uterine fibroids?
There are several risk factors for uterine fibroids:
African American woman are at three- to five-times greater risk than white women for fibroids.
Women who are overweight or obese for their height are at greater risk.
Women who have given birth are a lower risk.
What are the symptoms of uterine fibroids?
Many women with uterine fibroids have no symptoms. Symptoms of uterine fibroids can include:
Heavy or painful periods, or bleeding between periods
Feeling “full” in the lower abdomen
Urinating often
Pain during sex
Lower back pain
Reproductive problems, such as infertility, multiple miscarriages, or early labor
Most women with fibroids do no have problems with fertility and can get pregnant. Some women with fibroids may not be able to get pregnant naturally. But advances in treatments for infertility may help some of these women get pregnant.
What are the treatments for fibroids?
If you have uterine fibroids, but show no symptoms, you many not need any treatment.
Women who have pain and other symptoms might benefit from these treatments:
Medications can offer relief from the symptoms of fibroids and even slow or stop their growth. But, once you stop taking the medicine, the fibroids often grow back.
There are several types of fibroid surgery:
Myomectomy – Removes only the fibroids and leaves the healthy areas of the uterus in place
Uterine Artery Embolization (UAE) – Cuts off the blood supply to the uterus and fibroids, making them shrink
Hysterectomy - A more major procedure that removes the uterus; this type of surgery is the only sure way to cure fibroids.
What are uterine fibroids?
Uterine fibroids are the most common, non-cancerous tumors in women of childbearing age. The fibroids are made of muscle cells and other tissues that grow within and around the wall of the uterus.
View a diagram that shows where uterine fibroids may grow.-->
Who is at risk for uterine fibroids?
There are several risk factors for uterine fibroids:
African American woman are at three- to five-times greater risk than white women for fibroids.
Women who are overweight or obese for their height are at greater risk.
Women who have given birth are a lower risk.
What are the symptoms of uterine fibroids?
Many women with uterine fibroids have no symptoms. Symptoms of uterine fibroids can include:
Heavy or painful periods, or bleeding between periods
Feeling “full” in the lower abdomen
Urinating often
Pain during sex
Lower back pain
Reproductive problems, such as infertility, multiple miscarriages, or early labor
Most women with fibroids do no have problems with fertility and can get pregnant. Some women with fibroids may not be able to get pregnant naturally. But advances in treatments for infertility may help some of these women get pregnant.
What are the treatments for fibroids?
If you have uterine fibroids, but show no symptoms, you many not need any treatment.
Women who have pain and other symptoms might benefit from these treatments:
Medications can offer relief from the symptoms of fibroids and even slow or stop their growth. But, once you stop taking the medicine, the fibroids often grow back.
There are several types of fibroid surgery:
Myomectomy – Removes only the fibroids and leaves the healthy areas of the uterus in place
Uterine Artery Embolization (UAE) – Cuts off the blood supply to the uterus and fibroids, making them shrink
Hysterectomy - A more major procedure that removes the uterus; this type of surgery is the only sure way to cure fibroids.
Bone Health
Bone Health
Why is bone health important?
Bone health is important so that your bones will be healthy and strong throughout your lifetime.
It is especially important to build strong and healthy bones in the childhood and teen years to avoid osteoporosis and other bone problems later in life. Osteoporosis is a condition in which bones are fragile, making them fracture or break much easier. Taking care of your bones when you’re young will help prevent problems in the future. -->
How do you build strong bones?
You can build strong bones by getting enough calcium and weight-bearing physical activity during the tween and teen years, when bones are growing their fastest.
Young people in this age group have calcium needs that they can’t make up for later in life. In the years of peak skeletal growth, teenagers build more than 25 percent of adult bone. By the time teens finish their growth spurts around age 17, 90 percent of their adult bone mass is established.
How does calcium help build healthy bones?
Your body continually removes and replaces small amounts of calcium from your bones. If your body removes more calcium than it replaces, your bones will become weaker and have a greater chance of breaking. By getting lots of calcium when you’re young, you can make sure your body doesn’t have to take too much from your bones.
Bones have their own “calcium bank account,” so depositing as much calcium as possible during your tween and teen years will help you reach your peak bone mass. After age 18 the account closes – so you can’t add any more calcium to your bones. You can only maintain what is already stored to help your bones stay healthy. -->
What are good sources of calcium?
Calcium is found in a variety of foods. Low-fat and fat-free milk and other dairy products are great sources of calcium because of they have so much of it.
Tweens and teens can get most of their daily calcium from 3 cups of low-fat or fat-free milk, but they also need additional servings of calcium to get the 1,300 mg necessary for strong bones.
Other reasons low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products are great sources of calcium include:
Low-fat and fat-free milk has lots of calcium with little or no fat.
The calcium in low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products is easy for the body to absorb and in a form that gives the body easy access to the calcium.
Low-fat and fat-free milk has added vitamin D, which is important for helping your body better absorb calcium.
In addition to calcium, milk and dairy products provide other essential nutrients that are important for optimal bone health and development.
In addition to low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products, there are other good sources of calcium, including:
Dark green, leafy vegetables, such as spinach, broccoli, and bok choy
Foods with calcium added, such as calcium-fortified tofu, orange juice, soy beverages, and breakfast cereals or breads
Food labels can tell you how much calcium is in one serving of food. Look at the % Daily Value (% DV) next to the calcium number on the food label.
section of the Milk Matters Web site to see which foods have the most calcium.
How does physical activity help build healthy bones?
Bones are living tissue. Weight-bearing physical activity causes new bone tissue to form, which makes bones stronger. This kind of physical activity also makes muscles stronger. When muscles push and tug against bones during physical activity, bones and muscles become stronger.
For more information on weight-bearing physical activity and bone health, visit the Milk Matters Web site section, Increasing physical activity for better bone health.
Why is bone health important?
Bone health is important so that your bones will be healthy and strong throughout your lifetime.
It is especially important to build strong and healthy bones in the childhood and teen years to avoid osteoporosis and other bone problems later in life. Osteoporosis is a condition in which bones are fragile, making them fracture or break much easier. Taking care of your bones when you’re young will help prevent problems in the future. -->
How do you build strong bones?
You can build strong bones by getting enough calcium and weight-bearing physical activity during the tween and teen years, when bones are growing their fastest.
Young people in this age group have calcium needs that they can’t make up for later in life. In the years of peak skeletal growth, teenagers build more than 25 percent of adult bone. By the time teens finish their growth spurts around age 17, 90 percent of their adult bone mass is established.
How does calcium help build healthy bones?
Your body continually removes and replaces small amounts of calcium from your bones. If your body removes more calcium than it replaces, your bones will become weaker and have a greater chance of breaking. By getting lots of calcium when you’re young, you can make sure your body doesn’t have to take too much from your bones.
Bones have their own “calcium bank account,” so depositing as much calcium as possible during your tween and teen years will help you reach your peak bone mass. After age 18 the account closes – so you can’t add any more calcium to your bones. You can only maintain what is already stored to help your bones stay healthy. -->
What are good sources of calcium?
Calcium is found in a variety of foods. Low-fat and fat-free milk and other dairy products are great sources of calcium because of they have so much of it.
Tweens and teens can get most of their daily calcium from 3 cups of low-fat or fat-free milk, but they also need additional servings of calcium to get the 1,300 mg necessary for strong bones.
Other reasons low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products are great sources of calcium include:
Low-fat and fat-free milk has lots of calcium with little or no fat.
The calcium in low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products is easy for the body to absorb and in a form that gives the body easy access to the calcium.
Low-fat and fat-free milk has added vitamin D, which is important for helping your body better absorb calcium.
In addition to calcium, milk and dairy products provide other essential nutrients that are important for optimal bone health and development.
In addition to low-fat and fat-free milk and dairy products, there are other good sources of calcium, including:
Dark green, leafy vegetables, such as spinach, broccoli, and bok choy
Foods with calcium added, such as calcium-fortified tofu, orange juice, soy beverages, and breakfast cereals or breads
Food labels can tell you how much calcium is in one serving of food. Look at the % Daily Value (% DV) next to the calcium number on the food label.
section of the Milk Matters Web site to see which foods have the most calcium.
How does physical activity help build healthy bones?
Bones are living tissue. Weight-bearing physical activity causes new bone tissue to form, which makes bones stronger. This kind of physical activity also makes muscles stronger. When muscles push and tug against bones during physical activity, bones and muscles become stronger.
For more information on weight-bearing physical activity and bone health, visit the Milk Matters Web site section, Increasing physical activity for better bone health.
Hormone Replacement Therapy
Hormone Replacement Therapy
What is hormone replacement therapy (HRT)?
HRT, sometimes called estrogent replacement therapy or ERT, refers to a woman taking supplements of hormones such as estrogen alone or estrogen with another hormone called progesterone (progestin in its synthetic form). HRT replaces hormones that a woman’s body should be making or used to make. -->
Why would a woman take HRT?
Estrogen and progesterone normally regulate a woman’s menstrual cycle and reproductive health. Estrogen is also important for bone health.
Generally, health care providers prescribe HRT for two groups of women:
Women going through menopause and who had already gone through it (called post-menopausal)—The natural levels of these hormones drop during menopause. This drop can lead to symptoms such as hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, and sleep disturbances. HRT may be used to help lessen some of these symptoms
Women with certain health conditions—In some cases, women’s bodies don’t make normal levels of the hormones because of a medical problems, such as premature ovarian failure. For these women, HRT replaces the hormones that their bodies should be making.
What are the risks of HRT?
The risks of HRT differ depending on the health status of the woman taking it, and on the type of HRT.
Risks for healthy menopausal and post-menopausal womenThe NIH conducted the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) trial to learn about the risks and benefits of continuous estrogen+progestin HRT for post-menopausal women.
In one arm of this trial, researchers found that healthy post-menopausal women who took the therapy were at increased risk of invasive breast cancer, coronary heart disease, stroke, and blood clots. There were also benefits of estrogen plus progestin, including fewer cases of hip fractures and colon cancer.
Because the harm of HRT for healthy post-menopausal women in this trial was greater than the benefit, the researchers stopped the trial.
In light of the findings, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration noted that even though HRT effectively lessened some menopause symptoms in healthy post-menopausal women, it carried serious risks. Women should discuss the potential benefits and risks of HRT with their health care provider. The FDA recommends HRT for post-menopausal women be at the lowest doses for the shortest amount of time to reach treatment goals.
Risks of HRT for pre-menopausal women with certain health conditionsWomen whose bodies have stopped making estrogen or don’t make enough estrogen often take HRT to reduce symptoms and maintain overall health.
For instance, low estrogen levels in women with premature ovarian failure put these women at risk for osteoporosis and heart disease. HRT helps maintain bone health and reduce the risk of heart disease.
In these cases, HRT is actually replacing hormones that the women’s bodies should be making—hormones that they need for their overall health.
HRT taken by women with certain health conditions is different than that taken my post-menopausal women. The risks associated with post-menopausal HRT do not apply to pre-menopausal women taking HRT.
What is hormone replacement therapy (HRT)?
HRT, sometimes called estrogent replacement therapy or ERT, refers to a woman taking supplements of hormones such as estrogen alone or estrogen with another hormone called progesterone (progestin in its synthetic form). HRT replaces hormones that a woman’s body should be making or used to make. -->
Why would a woman take HRT?
Estrogen and progesterone normally regulate a woman’s menstrual cycle and reproductive health. Estrogen is also important for bone health.
Generally, health care providers prescribe HRT for two groups of women:
Women going through menopause and who had already gone through it (called post-menopausal)—The natural levels of these hormones drop during menopause. This drop can lead to symptoms such as hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, and sleep disturbances. HRT may be used to help lessen some of these symptoms
Women with certain health conditions—In some cases, women’s bodies don’t make normal levels of the hormones because of a medical problems, such as premature ovarian failure. For these women, HRT replaces the hormones that their bodies should be making.
What are the risks of HRT?
The risks of HRT differ depending on the health status of the woman taking it, and on the type of HRT.
Risks for healthy menopausal and post-menopausal womenThe NIH conducted the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) trial to learn about the risks and benefits of continuous estrogen+progestin HRT for post-menopausal women.
In one arm of this trial, researchers found that healthy post-menopausal women who took the therapy were at increased risk of invasive breast cancer, coronary heart disease, stroke, and blood clots. There were also benefits of estrogen plus progestin, including fewer cases of hip fractures and colon cancer.
Because the harm of HRT for healthy post-menopausal women in this trial was greater than the benefit, the researchers stopped the trial.
In light of the findings, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration noted that even though HRT effectively lessened some menopause symptoms in healthy post-menopausal women, it carried serious risks. Women should discuss the potential benefits and risks of HRT with their health care provider. The FDA recommends HRT for post-menopausal women be at the lowest doses for the shortest amount of time to reach treatment goals.
Risks of HRT for pre-menopausal women with certain health conditionsWomen whose bodies have stopped making estrogen or don’t make enough estrogen often take HRT to reduce symptoms and maintain overall health.
For instance, low estrogen levels in women with premature ovarian failure put these women at risk for osteoporosis and heart disease. HRT helps maintain bone health and reduce the risk of heart disease.
In these cases, HRT is actually replacing hormones that the women’s bodies should be making—hormones that they need for their overall health.
HRT taken by women with certain health conditions is different than that taken my post-menopausal women. The risks associated with post-menopausal HRT do not apply to pre-menopausal women taking HRT.
Premature Ovarian Failure
Premature Ovarian Failure
What is premature ovarian failure?
The term premature ovarian failure describes a stop in the normal functioning of the ovaries in a woman younger than age 40. Some people also use the term primary ovarian insufficiency to describe this condition. It is also known as hypergonadotropic hypogonadism.
Health care providers used to call this condition premature menopause, but premature ovarian failure is actually much different than menopause.
In menopause, a woman will likely never have another menstrual period again; women with premature ovarian failure are much more likely to get periods, even if they come irregularly.
A woman in menopause has virtually no chance of getting pregnant; a woman with premature ovarian failure has a greatly reduced chance of getting pregnant, but pregnancy is still possible.
What are the symptoms of premature ovarian failure?
The most common first symptom of premature ovarian failure is skipping or having irregular periods.
Some women with premature ovarian failure also have other symptoms, similar to those of women going through natural menopause. These may include:
Hot flashes and night sweats
Irritability, poor concentration
Decreased interest in sex or pain during sex
Drying of the vagina
Infertility
Premature ovarian failure also puts women at risk for some other health conditions, some of them serious, including:
Osteoporosis – loss of bone strength and bone density. Getting enough calcium, vitamin D, and weight-bearing physical activity can help reduce this risk.
Low thyroid function – affects metabolism and can cause very low energy. Replacing the thyroid hormone can treat the problem.
Addison’s disease – an autoimmune disorder in which the body has trouble handling physical stress, such an injury or illness, because of problems with the adrenal glands. About 3.2 percent of women with premature ovarian failure also have Addison’s disease. Addison’s can be dangerous for women who don’t know they have it. This condition can’t be prevented, but can be managed with help from your health care provider.
Heart disease – estrogen replacement therapy, along with keeping a healthy body weight and getting regular, moderate, physical activity, can help reduce this risk.
Also, it is important to know that people who are carriers for the gene for Fragile X syndrome, or who have the premutation for the condition, are more likely than other people to get premature ovarian failure. If you are a Fragile X carrier or have a premutation, it is important to get tested for premature ovarian failure.-->
Are there treatments for the symptoms of premature ovarian failure?
There is no proven treatment to make a woman’s ovaries work normally again. However, there are treatments that can help some of the symptoms of premature ovarian failure.
Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT), also called hormone replacement therapy (HRT) gives women the estrogen and other hormones their bodies are not making. HRT can help women have regular periods and lower their risk for osteoporosis.
Current research is looking into giving women the hormone testosterone to help prevent bone loss in women with premature ovarian failure.
What is premature ovarian failure?
The term premature ovarian failure describes a stop in the normal functioning of the ovaries in a woman younger than age 40. Some people also use the term primary ovarian insufficiency to describe this condition. It is also known as hypergonadotropic hypogonadism.
Health care providers used to call this condition premature menopause, but premature ovarian failure is actually much different than menopause.
In menopause, a woman will likely never have another menstrual period again; women with premature ovarian failure are much more likely to get periods, even if they come irregularly.
A woman in menopause has virtually no chance of getting pregnant; a woman with premature ovarian failure has a greatly reduced chance of getting pregnant, but pregnancy is still possible.
What are the symptoms of premature ovarian failure?
The most common first symptom of premature ovarian failure is skipping or having irregular periods.
Some women with premature ovarian failure also have other symptoms, similar to those of women going through natural menopause. These may include:
Hot flashes and night sweats
Irritability, poor concentration
Decreased interest in sex or pain during sex
Drying of the vagina
Infertility
Premature ovarian failure also puts women at risk for some other health conditions, some of them serious, including:
Osteoporosis – loss of bone strength and bone density. Getting enough calcium, vitamin D, and weight-bearing physical activity can help reduce this risk.
Low thyroid function – affects metabolism and can cause very low energy. Replacing the thyroid hormone can treat the problem.
Addison’s disease – an autoimmune disorder in which the body has trouble handling physical stress, such an injury or illness, because of problems with the adrenal glands. About 3.2 percent of women with premature ovarian failure also have Addison’s disease. Addison’s can be dangerous for women who don’t know they have it. This condition can’t be prevented, but can be managed with help from your health care provider.
Heart disease – estrogen replacement therapy, along with keeping a healthy body weight and getting regular, moderate, physical activity, can help reduce this risk.
Also, it is important to know that people who are carriers for the gene for Fragile X syndrome, or who have the premutation for the condition, are more likely than other people to get premature ovarian failure. If you are a Fragile X carrier or have a premutation, it is important to get tested for premature ovarian failure.-->
Are there treatments for the symptoms of premature ovarian failure?
There is no proven treatment to make a woman’s ovaries work normally again. However, there are treatments that can help some of the symptoms of premature ovarian failure.
Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT), also called hormone replacement therapy (HRT) gives women the estrogen and other hormones their bodies are not making. HRT can help women have regular periods and lower their risk for osteoporosis.
Current research is looking into giving women the hormone testosterone to help prevent bone loss in women with premature ovarian failure.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
What is PCOS?
PCOS is a condition in which a woman’s ovaries and, in some cases the adrenal glands, produce more androgens (a type of hormone) than normal. High levels of these hormones interfere with the development and release of eggs as part of ovulation. As a result, fluid-filled sacs or cysts can develop on the ovaries.
Because women with PCOS do not release eggs during ovulation, PCOS is the most common cause of female infertility.-->
How does PCOS affect fertility?
A woman's ovaries have follicles, which are tiny, fluid-filled sacs that hold the eggs. When an egg is mature, the follicle breaks open to release the egg so it can travel to the uterus for fertilization.
In women with PCOS, immature follicles bunch together to form large cysts or lumps. The eggs mature within the bunched follicles, but the follicles don't break open to release them.
As a result, women with PCOS often have menstrual irregularities, such as amenorrhea (they don’t get menstrual periods) or oligomenorrhea (they only have periods now and then). Because the eggs are not released, most women with PCOS have trouble getting pregnant.-->
What are the symptoms of PCOS?
In addition to infertility, women with PCOS may also have:
Pelvic pain
Hirsutism, or excess hair growth on the face, chest, stomach, thumbs, or toes
Male-pattern baldness or thinning hair
Acne, oily skin, or dandruff
Patches of thickened and dark brown or black skin
Also, women who are obese are more likely to have PCOS.
Although it is hard for women with PCOS to get pregnant, some do get pregnant, naturally or using assistive reproductive technology. Women with PCOS are at higher risk for miscarriage if they do become pregnant.
Women with PCOS are also at higher risk for associated conditions, such as:
Diabetes
Metabolic syndrome—sometimes called a precursor to diabetes, this syndrome indicates that the body has trouble regulating its insulin
Cardiovascular disease—including heart disease and high blood pressure
What is the treatment for PCOS?
There is no cure for PCOS, but many of the symptoms can often be managed. It is important to have PCOS diagnosed and treated early to help prevent associated problems.
There are medications that can help control the symptoms, such as birth control pills to regulate menstruation, reduce androgen levels, and clear acne. Other medications can reduce cosmetic problems, such as hair growth, and control blood pressure and cholesterol.
Lifestyle changes such as regular exercise can aid weight loss and help reduce blood sugar levels and regulate insulin levels more effectively. Weight loss can help lessen many of the health conditions associated with PCOS and can make symptoms be less severe or even disappear.
Surgical treatment may also be an option, but it is not recommended as the first course of treatment.
NICHD-funded research has also examined the effects of the anti-diabetes drug metformin on fertility in women with PCOS. To learn more about this research, check out the news releases about PCOS.-->
How is PCOS diagnosed?
Your health care provider will take a medical history and do a pelvic exam to feel for cysts on your ovaries. He or she may also do a vaginal ultrasound and recommend blood tests to measure hormone levels.
Other tests may include measuring levels of insulin, glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides. -->
-->
What is PCOS?
PCOS is a condition in which a woman’s ovaries and, in some cases the adrenal glands, produce more androgens (a type of hormone) than normal. High levels of these hormones interfere with the development and release of eggs as part of ovulation. As a result, fluid-filled sacs or cysts can develop on the ovaries.
Because women with PCOS do not release eggs during ovulation, PCOS is the most common cause of female infertility.-->
How does PCOS affect fertility?
A woman's ovaries have follicles, which are tiny, fluid-filled sacs that hold the eggs. When an egg is mature, the follicle breaks open to release the egg so it can travel to the uterus for fertilization.
In women with PCOS, immature follicles bunch together to form large cysts or lumps. The eggs mature within the bunched follicles, but the follicles don't break open to release them.
As a result, women with PCOS often have menstrual irregularities, such as amenorrhea (they don’t get menstrual periods) or oligomenorrhea (they only have periods now and then). Because the eggs are not released, most women with PCOS have trouble getting pregnant.-->
What are the symptoms of PCOS?
In addition to infertility, women with PCOS may also have:
Pelvic pain
Hirsutism, or excess hair growth on the face, chest, stomach, thumbs, or toes
Male-pattern baldness or thinning hair
Acne, oily skin, or dandruff
Patches of thickened and dark brown or black skin
Also, women who are obese are more likely to have PCOS.
Although it is hard for women with PCOS to get pregnant, some do get pregnant, naturally or using assistive reproductive technology. Women with PCOS are at higher risk for miscarriage if they do become pregnant.
Women with PCOS are also at higher risk for associated conditions, such as:
Diabetes
Metabolic syndrome—sometimes called a precursor to diabetes, this syndrome indicates that the body has trouble regulating its insulin
Cardiovascular disease—including heart disease and high blood pressure
What is the treatment for PCOS?
There is no cure for PCOS, but many of the symptoms can often be managed. It is important to have PCOS diagnosed and treated early to help prevent associated problems.
There are medications that can help control the symptoms, such as birth control pills to regulate menstruation, reduce androgen levels, and clear acne. Other medications can reduce cosmetic problems, such as hair growth, and control blood pressure and cholesterol.
Lifestyle changes such as regular exercise can aid weight loss and help reduce blood sugar levels and regulate insulin levels more effectively. Weight loss can help lessen many of the health conditions associated with PCOS and can make symptoms be less severe or even disappear.
Surgical treatment may also be an option, but it is not recommended as the first course of treatment.
NICHD-funded research has also examined the effects of the anti-diabetes drug metformin on fertility in women with PCOS. To learn more about this research, check out the news releases about PCOS.-->
How is PCOS diagnosed?
Your health care provider will take a medical history and do a pelvic exam to feel for cysts on your ovaries. He or she may also do a vaginal ultrasound and recommend blood tests to measure hormone levels.
Other tests may include measuring levels of insulin, glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides. -->
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Amenorrhea
Amenorrhea
What is amenorrhea?
Amenorrhea is the absence of a menstrual period.
Primary amenorrhea is when a young woman has not yet had a period by age 16.
Secondary amenorrhea describes someone who used to have a regular period but then it stopped for at least three months (this can include pregnancy).
What are the signs of amenorrhea?
The main sign of amenorrhea is missing a menstrual period.
Regular periods are a sign of overall good health. Missing a period may mean that you are pregnant or that something is going wrong (see What are the causes of amenorrhea?). It’s important to tell your health care provider if you miss a period so he or she can begin to find out what is happening in your body.
Amenorrhea itself is not a disease, but is usually a symptom of another condition. Depending on that condition, a woman might experience other symptoms, such as headache, vision changes, hair loss, or excess facial hair. -->
What are the causes of amenorrhea?
Amenorrhea is a symptom of a variety of conditions, ranging from not serious to serious.
Primary Amenorrhea
Chromosomal or genetic abnormalities can cause the eggs and follicles involved in menstruation to deplete too early in life.
Hypothalamic or pituitary diseases and physical problems, such as problems with reproductive organs, can prevent periods from starting.
Moderate or excessive exercise, eating disorders (such as anorexia nervosa), extreme physical or psychological stress, or a combination of these can disrupt the normal menstrual cycle.
Secondary amenorrhea
This problem is much more common than primary amenorrhea.
Common causes include many of those listed for primary amenorrhea, as well as pregnancy, certain contraceptives, breastfeeding, mental stress, and certain medications.
Hormonal problems involving the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, ovary, or adrenal glands can also cause amenorrhea.
Women who have very low body weight sometimes stop getting their periods as well.
Women with premature ovarian failure stop getting regular their periods before natural menopause.
What is treatment for amenorrhea?
Treatment for amenorrhea depends on the underlying cause. Sometimes lifestyle changes can help if weight, stress, or physical activity is causing the amenorrhea. Other times medications and oral contraceptives can help the problem. For more information, talk to your health care provider
What is amenorrhea?
Amenorrhea is the absence of a menstrual period.
Primary amenorrhea is when a young woman has not yet had a period by age 16.
Secondary amenorrhea describes someone who used to have a regular period but then it stopped for at least three months (this can include pregnancy).
What are the signs of amenorrhea?
The main sign of amenorrhea is missing a menstrual period.
Regular periods are a sign of overall good health. Missing a period may mean that you are pregnant or that something is going wrong (see What are the causes of amenorrhea?). It’s important to tell your health care provider if you miss a period so he or she can begin to find out what is happening in your body.
Amenorrhea itself is not a disease, but is usually a symptom of another condition. Depending on that condition, a woman might experience other symptoms, such as headache, vision changes, hair loss, or excess facial hair. -->
What are the causes of amenorrhea?
Amenorrhea is a symptom of a variety of conditions, ranging from not serious to serious.
Primary Amenorrhea
Chromosomal or genetic abnormalities can cause the eggs and follicles involved in menstruation to deplete too early in life.
Hypothalamic or pituitary diseases and physical problems, such as problems with reproductive organs, can prevent periods from starting.
Moderate or excessive exercise, eating disorders (such as anorexia nervosa), extreme physical or psychological stress, or a combination of these can disrupt the normal menstrual cycle.
Secondary amenorrhea
This problem is much more common than primary amenorrhea.
Common causes include many of those listed for primary amenorrhea, as well as pregnancy, certain contraceptives, breastfeeding, mental stress, and certain medications.
Hormonal problems involving the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, ovary, or adrenal glands can also cause amenorrhea.
Women who have very low body weight sometimes stop getting their periods as well.
Women with premature ovarian failure stop getting regular their periods before natural menopause.
What is treatment for amenorrhea?
Treatment for amenorrhea depends on the underlying cause. Sometimes lifestyle changes can help if weight, stress, or physical activity is causing the amenorrhea. Other times medications and oral contraceptives can help the problem. For more information, talk to your health care provider
Preeclampsia and Eclampsia
Preeclampsia and Eclampsia
What are preeclampsia and eclampsia?
Preeclampsia is a syndrome marked by a sudden increase in the blood pressure of a pregnant woman after the 20th week of pregnancy. It can affect the mother’s kidney, liver, and brain. If left untreated, the condition can be fatal for the mother and/or the baby and can lead to long-term health problems.
Eclampsia is a more severe form of preeclampsia that can cause seizures and coma in the mother. -->
What are the symptoms of preeclampsia?
Possible signs of preeclampsia include:
High blood pressure
Too much protein in the urine
Swelling in a woman’s face and hands (a woman’s feet might swell too, but swollen feet are common during pregnancy and may not signal a problem)
Systemic problems, such as headache, blurred vision, and abdominal pain
What is the treatment for preeclampsia?
The only cure for preeclampsia is delivering the fetus.
If preeclampsia develops, the health care provider may develop a plan to try to prolong the pregnancy to give the fetus more time to grow and mature. At the same time, the health care provider will closely watch the health of the mother for signs that the fetus needs to be delivered right away, even prematurely, if necessary. If the preeclampsia is severe enough and the fetus is not delivered, the mother could die. Health care providers will take steps to prevent the condition from being fatal for mother and baby.
If you have questions about preeclampsia and delivery, talk to your health care provider. -->
What are the risk factors for preeclampsia?
There is no proven way to prevent preeclampsia. But some women are more likely to develop it, including:
Women who have high blood pressure before becoming pregnant
Women who had high blood pressure or preeclampsia in previous pregnancies
Women who are obese
Women younger than age 20 or older than age 40
Women who are pregnant with more than one baby
Women with certain health conditions, such as diabetes or kidney disease
What are preeclampsia and eclampsia?
Preeclampsia is a syndrome marked by a sudden increase in the blood pressure of a pregnant woman after the 20th week of pregnancy. It can affect the mother’s kidney, liver, and brain. If left untreated, the condition can be fatal for the mother and/or the baby and can lead to long-term health problems.
Eclampsia is a more severe form of preeclampsia that can cause seizures and coma in the mother. -->
What are the symptoms of preeclampsia?
Possible signs of preeclampsia include:
High blood pressure
Too much protein in the urine
Swelling in a woman’s face and hands (a woman’s feet might swell too, but swollen feet are common during pregnancy and may not signal a problem)
Systemic problems, such as headache, blurred vision, and abdominal pain
What is the treatment for preeclampsia?
The only cure for preeclampsia is delivering the fetus.
If preeclampsia develops, the health care provider may develop a plan to try to prolong the pregnancy to give the fetus more time to grow and mature. At the same time, the health care provider will closely watch the health of the mother for signs that the fetus needs to be delivered right away, even prematurely, if necessary. If the preeclampsia is severe enough and the fetus is not delivered, the mother could die. Health care providers will take steps to prevent the condition from being fatal for mother and baby.
If you have questions about preeclampsia and delivery, talk to your health care provider. -->
What are the risk factors for preeclampsia?
There is no proven way to prevent preeclampsia. But some women are more likely to develop it, including:
Women who have high blood pressure before becoming pregnant
Women who had high blood pressure or preeclampsia in previous pregnancies
Women who are obese
Women younger than age 20 or older than age 40
Women who are pregnant with more than one baby
Women with certain health conditions, such as diabetes or kidney disease
Gestational Diabetes
Gestational Diabetes
What is gestational diabetes?
Gestational diabetes, also known as gestational diabetes mellitus, GDM, or diabetes during pregnancy, is a type of diabetes that only pregnant women get. If a woman gets diabetes when she is pregnant, but never had it before, then she has gestational diabetes.
Normally, your stomach and intestines digest the carbohydrate in your food into a sugar called glucose. Glucose is your body’s main source of energy. After digestion, the glucose moves into your blood to give your body energy.
To get the glucose out of your blood and into the cells of your body, your pancreas makes a hormone called insulin. If you have diabetes, either your body doesn’t make enough insulin, or your cells can’t use it the way they should. Instead, the glucose builds up in your blood, causing diabetes, or high blood sugar.
Gestational diabetes happens in about 5 percent of all pregnancies, or about 200,000 cases a year in the United States.-->
How do I know if I have gestational diabetes?
Health care providers will test most women who have average risk for gestational diabetes when they are between 24-28 weeks pregnant.
If your risk is higher-than-average, your health care provider may test you earlier, possibly as soon as you know you are pregnant.
There are two approaches to testing for gestational diabetes:
In the one-step approach, a woman will fast for 4 to 8 hours. Then a health care provider will measure her blood sugar and will do so again 2 hours after she drinks a sugar drink. This type of test is called an oral glucose tolerance test.
In the two-step approach, a health care provider measures a woman’s blood sugar 1 hour after drinking a sugar drink. Women whose blood sugar is normal after 1 hour probably don’t have gestational diabetes. Women whose blood sugar is high after 1 hour will then have an oral glucose tolerance test to see if they have gestational diabetes.
Will gestational diabetes affect the baby?
Most women who have gestational diabetes give birth to healthy babies, especially when they control their blood sugar, eat a healthy diet, exercise, and keep a healthy weight.
In some cases, though, gestational diabetes can affect the pregnancy and baby. Some potential risks include:
The baby’s body is larger than normal—called macrosomia. A large baby may need to be delivered by a surgical procedure called cesarean section, instead of naturally through the vagina.
The baby’s blood sugar is too low—called hypoglycemia. Starting to breastfeed right away can help get more glucose to the baby. The baby may also need to get glucose through a tube into his or her blood.
The baby’s skin turns yellowish and the whites of the eyes may change color—called jaundice. This condition is easily treated and is not serious if treated.
The baby may have trouble breathing and need oxygen or other help—called Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
The baby may have low mineral levels in the blood. This problem can causes muscle twitching or cramping, but can be treated by giving the baby extra minerals
How is gestational diabetes treated?
Many women with gestational diabetes have healthy pregnancies and healthy babies because they follow a treatment plan from their health care provider.
Each woman should have a specific plan designed just for her needs, but there are some general ways to stay healthy with gestational diabetes:
Know your blood sugar and keep it under control – By testing how much sugar is in your blood, it is easier to keep it in a healthy range. Women usually need to test a drop of their blood several times a day to find out their blood sugar level.
Eat a healthy diet – Your health care provider can make a plan with the best diet for you. Usually controlling carbohydrates is an important part of a healthy diet for women with gestational diabetes because carbohydrates affect blood sugar.
Get regular, moderate physical activity – Exercise can help control blood sugar levels. Your health care provider can tell you the best activities and right amount for you.
Keep a healthy weight – The amount of weight gain that is healthy for you will depend on how much you weighed before pregnancy. It is important to track your both your overall weight gain and weekly rate of gain.
Keep daily records of your diet, physical activity, and glucose level – Women with gestational diabetes should write down their blood sugar numbers, physical activity, and everything they eat and drink in a daily record book. This can help track how well the treatment is working and what, if anything, needs to be changed.
Some women with gestational diabetes will also need to take insulin to help manage their diabetes. The extra insulin can help lower their blood sugar level. Some women might also have to test their urine to see if they are getting enough glucose.-->
What happens after the baby is born?
For most women, blood sugar levels go back to normal quickly after the baby is born. Six weeks after the baby is born, you should have a blood test to check your blood sugar levels. The test also checks for your risk of getting diabetes in the future.
If you know you want to get pregnant again, have a blood sugar test up to three months before becoming pregnant to make sure your blood sugar level is normal.
Children whose mothers had gestational diabetes are at higher risk for obesity, abnormal glucose tolerance, and diabetes.
Women who have had gestational diabetes and children whose mothers had gestational diabetes are at higher lifetime risk for obesity and type 2 diabetes. It may be possible to prevent type 2 diabetes through lifestyle changes. Talk to your health care provider about diabetes and increased risk from gestational diabetes.-->
What is gestational diabetes?
Gestational diabetes, also known as gestational diabetes mellitus, GDM, or diabetes during pregnancy, is a type of diabetes that only pregnant women get. If a woman gets diabetes when she is pregnant, but never had it before, then she has gestational diabetes.
Normally, your stomach and intestines digest the carbohydrate in your food into a sugar called glucose. Glucose is your body’s main source of energy. After digestion, the glucose moves into your blood to give your body energy.
To get the glucose out of your blood and into the cells of your body, your pancreas makes a hormone called insulin. If you have diabetes, either your body doesn’t make enough insulin, or your cells can’t use it the way they should. Instead, the glucose builds up in your blood, causing diabetes, or high blood sugar.
Gestational diabetes happens in about 5 percent of all pregnancies, or about 200,000 cases a year in the United States.-->
How do I know if I have gestational diabetes?
Health care providers will test most women who have average risk for gestational diabetes when they are between 24-28 weeks pregnant.
If your risk is higher-than-average, your health care provider may test you earlier, possibly as soon as you know you are pregnant.
There are two approaches to testing for gestational diabetes:
In the one-step approach, a woman will fast for 4 to 8 hours. Then a health care provider will measure her blood sugar and will do so again 2 hours after she drinks a sugar drink. This type of test is called an oral glucose tolerance test.
In the two-step approach, a health care provider measures a woman’s blood sugar 1 hour after drinking a sugar drink. Women whose blood sugar is normal after 1 hour probably don’t have gestational diabetes. Women whose blood sugar is high after 1 hour will then have an oral glucose tolerance test to see if they have gestational diabetes.
Will gestational diabetes affect the baby?
Most women who have gestational diabetes give birth to healthy babies, especially when they control their blood sugar, eat a healthy diet, exercise, and keep a healthy weight.
In some cases, though, gestational diabetes can affect the pregnancy and baby. Some potential risks include:
The baby’s body is larger than normal—called macrosomia. A large baby may need to be delivered by a surgical procedure called cesarean section, instead of naturally through the vagina.
The baby’s blood sugar is too low—called hypoglycemia. Starting to breastfeed right away can help get more glucose to the baby. The baby may also need to get glucose through a tube into his or her blood.
The baby’s skin turns yellowish and the whites of the eyes may change color—called jaundice. This condition is easily treated and is not serious if treated.
The baby may have trouble breathing and need oxygen or other help—called Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
The baby may have low mineral levels in the blood. This problem can causes muscle twitching or cramping, but can be treated by giving the baby extra minerals
How is gestational diabetes treated?
Many women with gestational diabetes have healthy pregnancies and healthy babies because they follow a treatment plan from their health care provider.
Each woman should have a specific plan designed just for her needs, but there are some general ways to stay healthy with gestational diabetes:
Know your blood sugar and keep it under control – By testing how much sugar is in your blood, it is easier to keep it in a healthy range. Women usually need to test a drop of their blood several times a day to find out their blood sugar level.
Eat a healthy diet – Your health care provider can make a plan with the best diet for you. Usually controlling carbohydrates is an important part of a healthy diet for women with gestational diabetes because carbohydrates affect blood sugar.
Get regular, moderate physical activity – Exercise can help control blood sugar levels. Your health care provider can tell you the best activities and right amount for you.
Keep a healthy weight – The amount of weight gain that is healthy for you will depend on how much you weighed before pregnancy. It is important to track your both your overall weight gain and weekly rate of gain.
Keep daily records of your diet, physical activity, and glucose level – Women with gestational diabetes should write down their blood sugar numbers, physical activity, and everything they eat and drink in a daily record book. This can help track how well the treatment is working and what, if anything, needs to be changed.
Some women with gestational diabetes will also need to take insulin to help manage their diabetes. The extra insulin can help lower their blood sugar level. Some women might also have to test their urine to see if they are getting enough glucose.-->
What happens after the baby is born?
For most women, blood sugar levels go back to normal quickly after the baby is born. Six weeks after the baby is born, you should have a blood test to check your blood sugar levels. The test also checks for your risk of getting diabetes in the future.
If you know you want to get pregnant again, have a blood sugar test up to three months before becoming pregnant to make sure your blood sugar level is normal.
Children whose mothers had gestational diabetes are at higher risk for obesity, abnormal glucose tolerance, and diabetes.
Women who have had gestational diabetes and children whose mothers had gestational diabetes are at higher lifetime risk for obesity and type 2 diabetes. It may be possible to prevent type 2 diabetes through lifestyle changes. Talk to your health care provider about diabetes and increased risk from gestational diabetes.-->
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